Methods for identifying a person. Identification of a person and establishment of a citizen’s identity How methods of personal identification are used
Biometrics is a set of methods and devices for identifying a person, which are based on his unique physiological or behavioral characteristics.
This type of identification can be used to prevent unauthorized access to buildings, computers, ATMs, mobile phones, and so on.
Biometric properties are:
- fingerprints;
- facial geometry;
- iris of the eyes;
- retinal pattern;
- voice;
- handwriting;
- keyboard typing;
- pattern of veins on the hands, etc.
Science 2.0 Personal Identification
Benefits of biometric identification
Biometric security is more effective than, for example, using passwords, smart cards, PIN codes, tokens or public key infrastructure technology. This is explained by the ability of biometrics to identify not a device, but a person.
Conventional security methods are fraught with the loss or theft of information, which becomes open to illegal users. An exclusive biometric identifier, such as fingerprints, is a key that cannot be lost.
Classification of biometric methods
Based on the type of information used, biometric identification is divided into:
- Static methods based on the unique properties given to a person from birth and inherent in him. Physiological indicators (palm geometry or papillary pattern of fingers) are unchanged for humans’
- Dynamic methods based on behavioral (i.e. dynamic) characteristics of personality. These features are characteristic of subconscious movements when reproducing any actions (speech, signature, keyboard dynamics). Such behavioral characteristics are influenced by controllable and not very controllable mental factors. Due to their variability, biometric samples must be updated as they are used.
Methods of personal identification using biometric parameters
This identification method is the most common. He uses the uniqueness of finger papillary patterns for each person. A special scanner is used to obtain an image of a fingerprint. It is transformed into a digital code and compared with the template entered earlier.
The identification process takes no more than a few seconds. A certain disadvantage that hinders the development of this method is the prejudice of some people who do not want to leave their fingerprint data. The counter-argument of the hardware developers is that information about the papillary pattern is not stored, but only a short identification code based on the fingerprint and does not allow the pattern to be recreated for comparison. The advantage of the method is ease of use, reliability and convenience.
Identification by hand shape
This static method is based on measuring the shape of the hand. It is also a unique biometric parameter of a person. A special device allows you to get a three-dimensional view of the brush. The result is measurements to create a unique digital code that identifies a person.
This method in its technology and accuracy is comparable to the fingerprint identification method, although the device itself for implementing the method takes up a lot of space. The likelihood of having two identical hands with the same geometry is extremely low, although hands change with age.
Today, hand geometry identification is used in legislative bodies, hospitals, international airports, etc.
Iris authentication
The basis of this method is the exclusivity of the pattern on the iris of the eye. To perform this, you need a camera to obtain an image of the eye with sufficient resolution, and special software to extract the pattern on the iris from the resulting image. It is used to create a digital code that serves to identify a person.
The advantage of scanners is that the person is not required to focus on the target, since the pattern of iris spots is concentrated on the surface of the eye. Scanning is possible at a distance of less than 1 m. This is convenient for use, for example, at ATMs.
Identification by retina
The retina is scanned using low-intensity infrared light, which is directed to the blood vessels in the back of the eye through the pupil. Retinal scanners are common in security access systems because they have little chance of incorrect access permissions. Errors can be explained by deviation of the head from the reference position and incorrect focusing of the gaze on the light source.
Even twins have different retinal capillary patterns. This is why this method can be successfully used for personal identification.
The disadvantage of such systems is the psychological factor: not every person can look into a dark hole in which something is shining into the eye. In addition, these systems are sensitive to incorrect retinal orientation, so one must carefully monitor the position of the eye in relation to the hole.
Form faces as an object for identification
This static identification method involves creating a two- or three-dimensional image of a person's face. Using a camera and specialized software, the contours of the eyes, lips, eyebrows, nose, etc. are emphasized in the facial image. Then the distances between these elements and other parameters are calculated. Using this information, an image is created, which is converted into digital form for comparison.
This method is one of the most dynamically developing areas in the biometrics industry. Its attractiveness is based on the fact that no special expensive equipment is required. A personal computer and a video camera are enough. In addition, there is no physical contact with the devices. There is no need to touch anything or stop, specifically waiting for the system to operate.
Handwriting recognition
The basis for handwriting identification is the uniqueness and stability of this factor for each person. The characteristics are measured, converted into digital form and subjected to computer processing. That is, what is chosen for comparison is not writing as a product, but the process itself.
Two methods of data processing are common: regular comparison with a sample and dynamic verification. The first one is unreliable because the signature is not always the same. This method leads to a large percentage of errors. Dynamic verification involves more complex calculations. This method records in real time the parameters of the signature process itself: the speed of hand movement in various areas, the force of pressure and the duration of various stages of the signature. This excludes forgery, since it is impossible to exactly copy the hand movements of the author of the signature.
Keyboard handwriting recognition
This method is, in general, similar to that described above, but the signature in it is replaced by a certain code word, and the only equipment needed is a regular keyboard. The main identification characteristic is the dynamics of the keyboard typing of the code word.
According to modern research, keyboard handwriting has a certain stability, thanks to which a person can be unambiguously identified. The initial data is the time between pressing the keys and holding them down. Moreover, the time between pressing shows the pace of work, and holding - the style of work, that is, a smooth press or a sharp blow.
First, at the filtering stage, data on “service” keys – function keys, cursor control, etc. – is deleted.
Then the following user characteristics are highlighted:
- number of errors during the typing process;
- time between keystrokes;
- dialing speed.
- time to hold keys;
- arrhythmia when typing .
Voice recognition
The biometric voice identification method is easy to use. The reasons for its introduction are the widespread use of telephone networks and the integration of microphones into computers. Disadvantages can be considered factors that influence recognition: interference in microphones, ambient noise, errors in the pronunciation process, different emotional states of a person during identification, etc.
The main thing in building voice authentication devices is the choice of parameters that best describe the individuality of the voice. These signal parameters are called personality traits. Such signs, in addition to data on the characteristics of the voice, must also have other properties. For example, they should be easy to measure and little affected by noise and interference. In addition, they must be stable over time and resist imitation.
Systems have been developed using the method of combined analysis of voice and facial expressions. It turns out that the speaker’s facial expressions distinguish him only and will be different for another person uttering the same words.
Thermographic observation of facial arteries and veins
Identification of a person by face is greatly simplified if one switches to the infrared range of light waves. Thermography of an identified face reveals the unique location of the arteries on the face that supply the skin with blood. The issue of backlight does not exist for these biometric devices, since they only perceive temperature changes in the face and do not need light. The effectiveness of recognition does not depend on overheating or hypothermia of the face, natural aging of the individual, or plastic surgery, since they do not change the internal position of the blood vessels.
Facial thermography can distinguish between twins whose facial blood vessels are very different.
This identification method uses a specialized far-infrared video camera.
Identification by veins of the arm
There are devices on the biometric market that are based on the analysis of the individual location of veins in the arms. The pattern of veins located on the back of the hand clenched into a fist is taken into account. The pattern of veins is observed by a television camera using infrared illumination. When an image is entered, it is binarized to highlight the veins. Such equipment is produced by the only English company Vinchek.
Prospects for biometrics
The dominant method of personal identification is still fingerprint recognition. There are two main reasons for this:
- in many countries the transition to passports with biometric data has begun;
- development of updated models of fingerprint scanners for use in small devices (cell phones, pocket PCs, laptops).
Significant expansion can be expected in the signature identification sector due to the widespread adoption of digital electronic signatures. Voice recognition may also gain momentum thanks to the implementation of large projects in the construction of intelligent buildings.
The main forecasts are that the introduction of biometric security devices will become an avalanche in the near future. The fight against global terrorism will require the practical use of any achievements in this area. Thanks to the intensive development of multimedia and digital technologies and their further reduction in cost, it will be possible to develop and implement fundamentally new identification systems.
Certain biometric technologies are currently in the development stage and some of them are considered promising:
- facial thermogram in the infrared range;
- DNA characteristics;
- spectroscopy of finger skin;
- palm prints;
- shape of the auricle;
- human gait parameters;
- individual human odors;
- skin salinity level.
These methods of biometric identification can be considered mature today. They may soon move from research to commercial technology.
Establishing a person’s identity is one of the most important tasks of law enforcement.
means determining his last name, first name, patronymic, year of birth, place of birth-
tions and other installation data. It is worth saying that for the purposes of identifying the
nerds and many methods can be used. Most common in
economic, law enforcement and some other areas of activity
person will be a method of identifying the person using personal documents
centuries, which are designed to confirm the basic basic data of human
ka.
It is worth noting that the main identification document in our country is the passport.
port. If a person displays it or a passport is found on him (or
document similar to it), then it is considered that the person is the one whose data
These are in the passport. It is worth saying that to confirm this, a photo is placed in the passport
tography, which allows the method of comparing appearance to confirm or
disprove the identity of the passport holder.
In everyday life, in operational investigative activities and in some other areas -
This technique uses simple “recognition” of a person based on appearance. IN
In this case, a person recognizes another by comparing the one in front of him.
him of a face with a mental image of a specific person familiar to him from some
some installation data. The process of such recognition is largely
least subjective.
For the purposes of crime investigation, “simple recognition” transforms
were put into investigative action - identification, which is carried out scientifically
justified methodology in the manner prescribed by procedural law
giving.
At the same time, it is possible to identify a person based on appearance
not always. It is impossible, for example, to carry out identification when there is no
people who have a mental image in their head, i.e. people who
could identify an unknown person. Don't rely on simple
identification in cases where the identification or non-identification of a person has
of great importance for the case or the identifying person is interested in the result-
tah identification.
A person cannot be identified when his signs
appearance has changed significantly for some reason.
For example, a lot of time has passed and appearance has changed, or in cases
working with corpses when significant post-mortem facial changes have occurred
and other parts of the body.
And of course, identification is impossible when the subjects being studied are
objects are insignificant parts of the human body, its traces,
separate selections, displays of appearance or various kinds of functional
features and similar objects.
In cases where simple identification is impossible, but identification is required
determine the identity of a person, or in critical cases carry out identification
ational research aimed at establishing a person’s identity.
Note that the theory of identification was developed within the framework of criminology. When checking
Forensic medical identification uses theoretical principles
research on forensic identification.
In connection with the theory of forensic identification it follows
distinguish between several concepts. When identifying a person’s identity,
the fissile object will be the person's personality.
In most cases, by personal identification we mean
the process of determining a person's basic attitudinal data in relation to
to an object unknown to us. For example, we have a skeletonized corpse
a person (object X), about whom we do not know, what his name is, where he gave birth -
Xia, who his parents are, etc. A very specific person A has disappeared somewhere,
who is wanted by the internal affairs authorities. Due to the operations carried out
investigative measures, the assumption arises that the corpse of X is
is the corpse of citizen A. It is worth saying, in order to prove ϶ᴛᴏ, we must prove
ty forensic medical identification of the person. In this case we need
compare material objects, they are called identifying objects,
object from the corpse of X - object X and an object comparable to it in essence from
citizen A - object A. Most often in the situation under consideration, the object
X will be the skull of a corpse, object A will be lifetime photographs of the citizen
A. We do not know from whom object X comes. Origin of object A
known - ϶ᴛᴏ photographs of the wanted citizen A. If the
identification test by a specialist will be positive, then
Therefore, the identity of the person unknown to us, with whose corpse we are working -
Yes, it will be installed. We will be able to say that the corpse of X is the corpse of a citizen
Ah, the identity has been identified. If it turns out that a negative result is received
result of identification research, then the identity of the deceased remains
is unknown, and citizen A is not found.
By comparing identifying objects, the forensic scientist identifies in them
many signs, in the example under consideration ϶ᴛᴏ any elements
human facial structure, for example the width of the nose, determined by the skull
corpse and the width of the nose in photographs of citizen A. Coincidence of individual
signs, they are called identification signs, does not provide a basis
for a positive identification output. But the complex of identification
cation features, if it is sufficiently individual, allows you to make
positive conclusion, of course, in the absence of discrepant recognition
cov. If different reliable signs are detected, the result is identical.
personality classification can only be negative, no matter how big
there was a set of matching signs.
As mentioned above, the set of matching features must be
unique, i.e. in such a combination they should be inherent only in one
new person. Ideally, theoretically, currently the body of research
of the studied signs should occur no more often than once every 5-6 million
liards (for one person out of the entire world population) For practical purposes
For commercial purposes it may be somewhat less.
To evaluate a set of characteristics, “quality” is of great importance.
individual identification features. It is worth noting that they must be reliably determined
divisible, i.e. clearly and unambiguously identified on objects. Sustainable
in time, i.e. unchanged over a certain period of time
neither. And independent from each other, i.e. they in this manifestation should not
be connected with each other. For example, a person with a large mouth may have
any eye color, therefore the identification mark is large
the mouth is not related to the trait - eye color, they are independent of each other.
There are signs that are, to one degree or another, dependent on each other.
For example, in people with the presence of epicanthus (a special structure of the internal corner-
la eyes, characteristic of Mongoloids) in the vast majority of cases
there will be black or dark hair. Therefore the identification sign
The presence of epicanthus is associated with the characteristic dark hair. Therefore, when
assessment of the set of identification characteristics; interrelated characteristics
must be assessed as one comparable characteristic.
Of course, the provisions of the theory of forensic identification are more
are numerous and complex than those presented above.
Many of the provisions of the theory of identification are still being debated by scientists,
some are accepted by some and not accepted by other researchers. Know-
When reading ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ literature, one may encounter terms that
which can be used ambiguously by different authors. The above principles
The theories of identification do not pretend to be rigorous scientific conclusions.
Dov, they are given solely as a tool for understanding the described below
specific objects and methods of identifying a person.
Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that in most cases, when carrying out identification
personality of a person, specialists have one task to make a comparison
ness of objects, one known (it is known that it originated from the civil
nina A), and the second - unknown (object X)
Known objects are called differently in different cases, in some - ϶ᴛᴏ
samples for comparison, in others - identification material about the missing
missing person (photos, records in medical documents), etc.
These objects must be such that they have characteristics comparable to
signs in an unknown object. For example, it is impossible to compare pelvic
high bones of a corpse with intravital photographs of a human head, pelvic
bones can only be compared with intravital bone radiographs
Objects X, objects of unknown origin, can be very different
new by their nature. Let's divide them into the following groups:
1. A living person.
In law enforcement activities, a living person is one of the objects
identification can occur in a number of situations. First of all ϶ᴛᴏ
cases when he cannot or does not want to communicate about himself the basic
actual data (child, sick person, criminal hiding ϲʙᴏe
People who died in conditions where it was not obvious and did not have documents with them
cops fall into this category of objects of identification. According to statistics,
in our country about 20 thousand corpses are discovered a year, in relation to
of whom it is extremely important to carry out work to establish their identity.
It is important to know that most of the corpses, the appearance of which is not changed by post-mortem processes,
processes, is recognized by relatives and friends, but some part of everything
also requires identification research.
These studies can be carried out using the same methods as those described.
ranks are higher for living people, with the exception, perhaps, of odorological
III. Corpses in a state of pronounced post-mortem or traumatic changes
Post-mortem destructive processes, intravital and post-mortem extensive
the damage alters the corpse so much that it cannot be identified. Poe-
the only reliable way is to identify the individual
using our methods.
In practice, I often had to deal with cases
mi, when the identification of the altered corpse was made by
identification by clothing. This method can only have an orienting value.
However, the final conclusion can be made only after identification
tion research. Methods that are applicable to this kind of objects are:
used for working with unaltered corpses, but their implementation is more
more complicated due to changes in the tissues of the corpse. For example, it is not possible to directly
compare the appearance features of the deceased person (on identification
photographs) and a person in a lifetime photograph. It is necessary first or
qualitatively restore the soft tissues of the head, or clear the skull of os-
tats of soft tissues, and then compared using special
methods of the skull (the basis of the signs of the appearance of the human head) and signs
appearance in a lifetime photograph.
IV. Corpse parts.
Parts of a corpse as an object of identification can be found in a variety of
situations, for example, during mass disasters, during criminal dismemberment -
nii and in other situations.
If among the body parts to be identified there is a head and
hands of a corpse, then identification methods will not differ fundamentally from
described above for unaltered or altered corpses. Problems arose
exist in cases where the head and arms of the corpse are missing, data are sharply
The choice of identification methods is limited. Body parts can only be determined
some general characteristics of a person: gender, age with one or another
accuracy, height. Identification by morphological characteristics is possible
only in the presence of any individualizing features, acquired
changes during life, for example, bone fractures, scar changes in the skin
life, tattoos and other similar distinctive characteristics (Fig.
In such cases, if there are objects of comparison, the most effective
vein method of genotyposcopic identification.
V. Blood, human secretions, pieces of tissue, hair.
Identification objects of this kind are most often found in the form
so-called traces of biological origin at the scene of the incident
viya. A large number of methods and techniques are used in relation to them.
group differentiation. This approach makes it possible to exclude or not exclude
the origin of an object from a specific person, but identification, in
In the strict understanding of this term, such methods are not carried out.
For these objects, the genotyping method will be very promising.
copies that actually allow them to be identified.
When applied to blood stains, the method of odorant sometimes gives a good effect.
logical identification.
VI. Contact mapping of the human body surface.
The surface of the human body according to its structure is very individual, ϶ᴛᴏ
means that similar parts of the body of two different people cannot have
absolutely similar structure.
If a person touches any part of the body to the surface of some
any object, then under suitable surface conditions
a trace will remain of the object. In traceology, the surface leaving
the trace is usually called trace-forming, and the surface on which remains
Xia trace - trace-perceiving.
Traces can be different, for example, if with a trace-forming surface
ity, the substance passes to the trace-perceiving one, due to which it forms
If a trace is formed, such traces are usually called traces-layers. If
on the contrary, the substance passes from the trace-receiving surface to the trace
additional forming, then the traces are called traces-delaminations.
The most well-known and widely practiced traces of such
There will be traces of fingers and palms of the hands. But there are also traces
lips, forehead skin, etc.
Methods of fingerprint identification have been most developed - identification
tification based on the display of papillary patterns of the fingers and palms of the hands. On
In practice, identification is sometimes successfully carried out using the fingerprints of others.
areas of the human body.
VII. Photo and video displays of a person’s appearance.
Today, photo and video recording methods are widespread.
a person's appearance. Quite often these materials will be objects
identification of a person. Typically, such studies are carried out by comparing
noting the signs of the structure of the human head, this process is called portrait-
new identification.
VIII. Written speech.
Speech is the linguistic form of expressing thoughts. In writing
thoughts are expressed by writing texts. Note that texts can be written in
print topics on various printing devices and then they will display
characteristic of a person: a set of words, phrases, construction of phrases and
If the text is written directly by a person’s hand (the so-called
copied texts), then, in addition to the indicated characteristics of a person, it displays
His skills in making written signs, symbol combinations,
arrangement of words, lines, etc.
When working with such objects, identification can be carried out by
IX. Oral speech.
Oral speech is perceived by the human hearing aid. It is worth noting that she can
be recorded on magnetic and some other media, such records
are called phonograms. The phonograms display certain features
knowledge from purely physiological, for example parameters of the vocal cords, to
highly intellectual - speech culture, etc.
Personal identification based on comparison of phonograms is carried out with
using various phonoscopic techniques.
X. Other objects of human identification.
In practice, many other objects may be encountered, research
which may allow identification of a person. For example, for
recording of certain physiological functions, the body’s responses to
any influences, dynamic stereotypes - combinations of movements
a person when performing this or that action, and the like.
Objects in groups from the first to the fifth ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙare predominantly related to
competence of forensic doctors, in groups from six to ten to competence
experts working in the field of traditional and non-traditional crime
leaf examination. Some of the identification objects may be
studied by both forensic doctors and criminologists, for example, appearance
human: papillary patterns; tattoos, etc.
Biomedical specialists can use a variety of
new methods for conducting identification research. Let's dwell on
the most effective.
37.1. Identification by examining a person's physical appearance
In criminology, a person’s appearance is understood as a set of characteristics
human characteristics, perceived visually, or with the help of other organi-
new feelings. There is a group of morphological characteristics that reflect
the structure of the human body, for example the structure of the human head, and the group of di-
namical characteristics associated with a person’s performance of any
motor functions, such as gait.
Comparison of two objects during identification begins with comparison
the most general characteristics, such as gender, age, height, physique
tion, skin color, body proportions, etc.
This methodological approach allows us to exclude the identity of objects,
without resorting to labor-intensive research methods. For example, having established that
object X comes from a female person, and the one being compared with him
object A comes from a man, the specialist has the right not to produce
further research, making a negative identification conclusion.
Determination of sex
There are practically no problems with establishing gender if the
external or internal genitalia. If the object is being examined in
If these organs are absent, sex determination is made by
identifying various signs of sex differences between men and
by women. These are the sizes of individual parts of the body, in women in the majority
there are fewer cases, and the development of muscles, and the structure of the pelvic bones,
turnips, etc. (Fig. 37-2) It is worth saying that the floor can be installed quite easily by
studies of sex chromatin in cell nuclei.
Age determination
If the object of identification is a living person or a corpse without expression,
changes, then age determination is made by studying
signs of appearance and their features characteristic of a particular
period of a person’s life (methods for determining age are described in the chapter
When examining body parts, much depends on which parts are
are in stock. Methods for determining age by age have been most developed.
penalties for fusion of the sutures of the skull, abrasion of teeth, the structure of long tubular
bones, in young children and adolescents in terms of body size and its hour-
tey (including skeletal bones), according to the processes of ossification of acid bones
those hands, by changing teeth, and some others.
Definition of height
In living people and in corpses that do not have significant damage,
division of growth does not present any special difficulties. When are they researched?
parts of the body, then the determination of height is made by using the cor-
correlations between the sizes of individual parts of the human body and his overall growth
scrap. The best results are obtained when determining growth by the length of long
human tubular bones, such as the femur, etc. Accuracy in determining
growth is higher in the case of joint examination of the bones of the upper and lower
their limbs. If there is only a bone fragment, then the definition
growth is possible only with a sufficiently high probability of error.
Forensic doctors, in addition to those indicated, are determined and can be used in
in the process of identification, certain other characteristics of the general plan, such as
such as anthropological type, left-handedness or right-handedness, etc.
Portrait identification
Portrait identification in relation to living people, as a rule, is carried out
Diagnosed by forensic experts. If you need to compare appearance
of a deceased person with lifetime photographs, then the data is dealt with by
medical doctors.
In the course of portrait identification of a person, non-
so many techniques and methods.
The descriptive comparison method essentially consists in sequentially
all visible parts of a person’s face are described: hair, face, its elements,
wrinkles and folds, individual characteristics and so on. When ϶ᴛᴏm pro-
measurements are taken of those elements of the facial structure that can be changed
Rens. Do not forget that measuring proportions and dimensional relationships is important.
characteristics, for example, the ratio of the width of the nose and the distance between the internal
early corners of the eyes and the like. It is appropriate to note that the description is made according to the system
verbal portrait accepted in criminology. To the greatest extent, portrait is often
identification, when examining a corpse, is carried out using identification marks
photographs.
After describing the face of the corpse and the face of the person in the intravital photograph,
a comparison is made of the descriptions made for each of the positions. Revealing-
There are matching and non-matching features.
If most of the signs coincide, and the discrepancies are explainable, it is possible
the influence of factors that are not essential for establishing identity, then
they decide to evaluate the totality of matching features.
If the population is sufficiently individual, then a conclusion is made about the identity
the accuracy of the face of the corpse and the face of the person in the intravital photograph.
Differences in age and age are considered unimportant for assessing identity.
nature, due to the time gap between the lifetime fo-
filming and photographing the corpse, but the expert must assess the possibility
the occurrence of detected differences due to aging. Differences may
be caused by post-mortem changes in the face of the corpse, an assessment of this kind
distortions should also be made by an expert when conducting a portrait
identification. A significant influence in the emergence of differences can be played by
develop methods of photographing and working with photographic materials, the ability to
such distortions must be taken into account by the expert when assessing the
giving and non-matching signs.
The characteristics that are most significant for the result of portrait identification are:
appearances that have an individual character, such as moles, scars,
tattoos and the like. At the same time, when detecting and assessing them, it is necessary
we can remember that some of them could have arisen after the
a photograph was taken during his lifetime and is therefore not on it, but they have
place on the face of a corpse.
If teeth are visible in a person’s lifetime photographs, then identification
The tional value of such photographs increases. Dimensions, relative positions
The formation of teeth and their structural features are valuable identification features.
If the complex of signs is insufficient for a categorical conclusion about
portrait identity and the absence of significant differences may be
a probabilistic positive conclusion was drawn.
In some cases, portrait identification is carried out by complete
or partial overlap of the compared images, some
some other working methods.
Today, in our country and abroad, computer
programs for working with portrait images. For example, developed
programs that allow you to add signs of aging to a portrait or, conversely,
mouth, rejuvenate the face. The machine can measure facial proportions by points,
specified by the expert. At the same time, at all stages of its work, control is carried out
the role of a specialist. The use of this kind of working methods increases the efficiency
reliability, objectivity and speed of portrait identification.
Identification by combining images of a person's skull and face on
lifetime photographs
During the identification study of skeletal human remains
the most informationally significant object will be the skull. When identified
Fictional research uses several techniques and methods. Most
The most common method is to combine the image of a human skull and face.
Note that the theoretical basis for the possibility of identifying a person by combining
images of the skull and head is essentially that the soft tissues of the head in
This structure is for the most part closely related to the structure of the skull. By϶ᴛᴏ-
However, the structure of a particular skull depends on the structure of the soft tissues.
Some deviations are possible, but they can be taken into account and are taken into account
when conducting research.
Previously, such studies were carried out by combining photographic images
human skulls and faces, now more often, the computer method is used
overlaying the face and skull after their tele-entry into the system.
The purpose of the expert’s actions when carrying out this type of research is
complete combination of all constant points and contours (sets of to-
check) highlighted on the skull and face. The expert achieves this by post-
new skulls from the same angle in which the human head is located in the background
photograph. Constant points are used to select such places on the face and skull,
the position of which can be quite unambiguously determined, for example, by
owl point, eye corner position points and many others. The method of superimposition
The images are simultaneously compared; dimensions of external elements:
their proportions: relative position: structure and other parameters. Just not-
which characteristics of the structure cannot be compared when combined
tion of images, therefore the method of combining images is complemented by comparison
no descriptions.
If there are photographs of a person from different angles, the
of significant quality, experts almost always come to categorical
ical positive or negative identification conclusion.
37.2. Fingerprint identification of a person
Fingerprint identification of a person is one of the most effective
new identification methods. Let us note the fact that in modern criminology and forensic medicine
In fact, it is deservedly considered the most developed and reliable method.
It is important to know that most of the principles of forensic identification theory in general,
and the theory of human personality identification in particular, formed on
based on the provisions of fingerprint identification. New installation methods
identity concepts that appear in science and practice try to compare
with fingerprinting for reliability and efficiency. For example, implemented in
Currently, the method of genotyposcopy is being introduced into widespread expert practice.
Chalu was even called genomic fingerprinting, emphasizing the great possibilities
ty genotyposcopic method in identifying a person’s personality by
comparison of its capabilities with a reference forensic method. Poe-
In addition, a presentation of the basics of fingerprint identification in this chapter
the textbook will be useful.
On the palmar surfaces of the hands and similar surfaces
the feet have patterns formed by ridges and grooves, called
papillary patterns (papilla - papilla, papillary - papillary) Their
the presence is due to the structure of the base (papillary) layer of the skin, which
also called the dermal layer (dermis) The outer layer of the skin is the epidermis,
demonstrates the structure of the base dermal layer. (Fig. 37-3)
The skin on the palmar surfaces of the hands (and on the plantar sides of the feet) behind
due to the presence of ridges and grooves, it is much thicker than on others
areas of the body. Functionally, such a skin arrangement allows for better protection
protect the underlying tissue layers from mechanical and thermal damage,
the danger of occurrence of which will constantly remain during hand contact
with various kinds of objects. With such an increased thickness of the skin, it is so
tile sensitivity is higher than in other areas of the skin of the human body -
ka, ϶ᴛᴏ is due to the fact that the skin rolls in contact with surfaces
are displaced, and the deviation of the tops of the rollers is transmitted to their base,
where the receptors are located. Except for the above, the presence of rollers and
grooves allow you to better hold objects when grasping them with your hand.
Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the structure of the skin in the form of papillary ridges and grooves
increases the efficiency of performing several functions of the human hands at once.
Papillary patterns appear in the human fetus at the time of formation
skin and remain unchanged until a person’s death. Destroyed
they are after the death of a person along with the skin, which most often occurs
for a significant period of time after death. Papillary patterns of the floor
completely restored to their original form after surface treatment
skin lesions. After deep injuries, scars remain, which have
individual character.
The structure of papillary patterns is strictly individual. More than a century
Our observations have proven that papillary patterns are not repeated in different
of people. And even Siamese twins, whose bodies are to one degree or another
united with each other, have different papillary patterns.
These properties make it possible to effectively use papillary patterns
ry for identifying people.
Along with the fact that papillary patterns are strictly individual, they also have
common features that allow them to be classified.
For practical purposes of identifying a person, in most cases we use
papillary patterns of the terminal phalanges of the fingers are used.
When conducting identification and other studies of papillary patterns,
It is most convenient to work with their prints obtained using
using black paint and white paper. Therefore, description of papillary patterns
produced in relation to their displays obtained on paper.
Let's study the structure of papillary patterns. All papillary patterns are divided
into three main types: loop (frequency approximately 65%); behind-
As is known, the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule is
tel of hereditary information.
The possibility of such research is based on individuality
structure of certain sections of the DNA molecule, they were called hypervariable
(GV) in sections. The structure of these segments of molecules is not only individual
every person, but is also strictly repeated in all organs and tissues of the body
one person (Fig. 37-6)
The method for studying the GV regions of a DNA molecule is called differently: “ge-
Nominal identification", "DNA fingerprinting", "genotyposcopy".
(I look at the genotype) most accurately demonstrates the meaning of this kind of research
and we will use the name of the method.
Note that theoretically, the genotyposcopic identification method will be the most
universal, since with its help, in principle, one can identify
a variety of objects of biological origin, if only in them
a small number of DNA molecules or parts thereof have been preserved.
Using highly efficient technical means, it is possible to obtain re-
a result with a probability of error less than one in several billion
dov cases. That is, to single out one single person from everything
many living on earth.
The versatility and high individuality of the results make ϶ᴛᴏt
the method is the most promising among all other identification methods
humans in cases of direct research of biological objects
origin.
There are several technology options for conducting research on mo-
DNA molecules for human identification purposes. It is important to note that one of the options is based on
analysis of length polymorphism of DNA restriction fragments (fragments,
obtained by cutting the molecule) It is called RFLP analysis for short
(used for the study of liquid blood)
Note that the technology of such research in general consists of the following
1. Isolation of DNA molecules from the material under study. (DNA molecules on-
are found in the nuclei of cells in the DNA structure.)
2. Fragmentation (separation into fragments) of DNA molecules using
enzymes - restriction enzymes (endonucleases) There are many types of restriction enzymes
rictases, which cut the DNA molecule in places unique to them, i.e.
i.e. each type of restriction enzyme only in the place in which it is supposed to be
chemical nature.
After such an effect on the DNA molecule, many fragments are formed.
cops, which differ from each other in composition, length and, accordingly,
respectively, molecular weight.
3. A mixture of DNA fragments is separated by gel electrophoresis. Method
is based on the fact that under the influence of electric current fragments
DNA moves in a special medium - a gel. The lighter and smaller they are,
4. From the entire set of fragments located in different areas
electrophoretic plate, using special probes reveal
lymorphic fragments. Moreover, probes are usually labeled with radioactive isotopes.
pamy or non-radioactive tags. What allows you to get on a special
membrane a visible set of lines of different widths, indicating number and type
hypervariable (HV) fragments. The location of individual lines varies
it varies among different people, and their totality is individual, (Fig. 37-7)
It is advisable to carry out a parallel study of the known
origin of the object (from A) and the unknown (from X) It is worth saying - the resulting “pictures”
ki" distributions of GW fragments are compared with each other using
methods of mathematical analysis. Calculate the possibility of random
image matches. With a very small probability of random coincidence
falls neglect it and believe that the objects being compared are identical, and
therefore, the identity of the person from whom he came earlier has been established
unknown object X.
The method allows you to compare the results of studies of unknown
exchangeable DNA molecules from the nuclei of blood cells, sperm and any other tissues
human body. The “picture” of the location of GW fragments does not change to
throughout a person's life, it is individual. It is worth saying - complete similarity
"DNA patterns" are observed only in identical twins. With relatives
the similarity of genotypic patterns will be revealed, which makes it possible to establish
Recently, it has been developed and is actively being introduced into expert practice.
tic method that allows the study of very small quantities
broken DNA molecules. The method is based on the fact that before the study
In the GV regions, existing DNA fragments are copied many times, thereby
the volume of material to be studied is increased to the required level;
nu. This method is called the amplification method (chain reaction
With the introduction into practice of this modification of genotyposcopy, it was eliminated
but one of the most significant obstacles on the path of practical
morbid-medical and forensic use of the method, I conclude
resulting from the limitations of the material required to carry out effective
significant research, in terms of volume and quality.
The use of the genotyposcopy method can solve many
problems arising in the detection and investigation of crimes. By
data from the genotyposcopy laboratory of the Expert Forensic Center
With its help, the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia can do the following.
1. Establish the origin of blood, sperm and some others
objects from a specific person. (Fig. 37-9)
2. Combine crimes if they were committed by the same person and
contained traces of biological origin, such as sperm.
3. It is appropriate to note that to determine whether pregnancy has occurred from a person suspected of
committing rape.
4. Identify specific participants in events in cases of detection
mixed traces of biological origin. (That is, the expert, if not
necessity can say that this particular blood stain is formed
blood of several persons and indicate which ones specifically.)
5. It is appropriate to note that to determine whether parts of a corpse found dismembered are
same or different bodies.
6. Determine whether a particular man and woman can be pregnant
child's lamy, (Fig. 37-8)
It is possible to resolve other issues similar to those mentioned above that arise.
in solving and investigating crimes.
Based on the results of the study of DNA “fingerprints,” the following variations are possible:
antecedents of the expert's conclusions.
1. The origin of the studied object from a specific person is excluded
2. The identity of DNA molecules in the object under study and in the environment has been established.
case taken from person A. Consequently, the investigated object X occurred
on behalf of A.
When identifying the parents of a child, several options are possible for answering:
1. The origin of the child from one of the intended births is excluded.
2. The origin of the child from both intended parents is excluded.
3. The biological parents of the child will be a specific man and
It is worth saying that a positive conclusion is made by an expert if a very
low probability of random coincidence of polymorphic bands (less than
To conclude this section of the chapter, we will give several examples of the use
using the genotyposcopy method from the practice of Forensic Expertise
who is the center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia (ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation)
1. A young woman gave birth to a boy. A few days after giving birth
he died in the maternity hospital and was handed over to his parents for burial. By
six months after the burial of the baby, the parents developed
suspicion that the deceased child given to them will not be their son. After
carrying out the exhumation, an examination was ordered, which was carried out
entrusted to experts from the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. The question was posed for resolution: “Is it
Is the dead boy the child of this man and woman?”
liquid blood of the intended parents and muscle tissue were presented.
tissue from the exhumed corpse of a child. The research was clear
It was established that these man and woman are the parents of the deceased child.
2. In one of the apartments of the house the corpse of the murdered citizen N was discovered. During
operational investigative activities in the apartment of suspect M. was
a knife with traces of a brownish substance similar to blood was found. Was
an examination was appointed, the production of which was entrusted to the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. Before
experts posed the question: “Does the blood detected
on a knife, from Mr. N.?" Using the genotyposcopy method, it was established that
that the genotype of the blood on the knife and the genotype of the blood of Gr-N are the same, and the possible
The frequency of occurrence of such a DNA “fingerprint” is 1 in 300 milligrams.
ardov man. It was concluded that the blood on the knife found in the apartment
the dash of suspect M. will be the blood of Mr. N.
3. Gr-ki A., fifteen years old, after five weeks of pregnancy,
there was a miscarriage. According to her statements, five weeks before the event, she
Citizen M. was silovan and the conception occurred from him. It is worth saying, for confirmation or
to refute this statement, an examination was appointed, to resolve which
Roy was asked the question: “Will Ms. A’s pregnancy be possible?
a consequence of the fact that Mr. M. had sexual intercourse with her?" Conducted
The examination was entrusted to the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, as the materials being examined
The catches are represented by: fetal tissue, blood of group A., blood of group M. Genotypos-
Copy research excluded M. as the subject of conception. During
investigation, it turned out that Ms. A. met Mr. N., genotypic
a pictorial study established that it was from him that it came
4. Fragments of skin were found in the forest. It is worth saying that to install
identification of the species and gender of the indicated fragments was intended
chen examination, which was entrusted to the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. Using the genoti-
Poscopy revealed that the skin belonged to a man.
During the operational search activities, the B. family was identified, whose
where a fifteen-year-old boy disappeared. According to the time of occurrence of the specified
events, it was possible that the skin could come from the missing boy
Genotyposcopic examination of the blood of B.’s husband and wife and skin fragments
cops of an unknown man, using the amplification method (reaction
tion of chain polymerization), it was found that the unknown will
son of husband and wife B.
The genotyposcopy method is currently being actively implemented in
the practice of law enforcement and ϶ᴛᴏ is not a tribute to fashion, but a consequence
its revolutionary potential. Using this method, it is practically possible to solve
There are law enforcement tasks that were previously unsolvable. Except
Moreover, even wider use of it in solving problems has been scientifically prepared
various tasks of identifying the identity of humans and animals based on traces
and objects of biological origin. With the advent of this method, science
and practice received a universal tool for group and individual
identification of any objects of living nature.
37.4. Laboratory analysis of odors recovered from accident scenes
The smell of a person is due to the presence in the secretions of his skin
complex of volatile chemicals. Animal olfactory bioreceptor
perceives these chemicals, information processing is carried out -
in the brain.
Olfactory capabilities of service-search dogs for operational
They have been used for investigative purposes for a long time: to track down criminals; For
detection of various types of chemicals (explosives, drugs and
4. Consequences of medical intervention (fillings, dentures, etc.)
Comparing the teeth of, say, a putrefied human corpse with the description
the teeth of a living person, available in medical documents, special
alists analyze the similarities and differences in the structure of teeth according to the specified
higher groups. With complete coincidence of several character traits
and the location can be given a positive identification
water When differences are found, they must be properly assessed. Spilled
changes in the condition of the teeth may be due to changes that have already occurred
after an intravital description of the dental apparatus was made.
For example, in the medical record it is noted that the second incisor on the right is present.
chii, but the corpse does not have it. The tooth could have been removed (fell out) after
how the record under study was made. In such cases, the expert must learn
explore all possible options for the development of the situation.
Identification findings, both positive and negative,
are built only on the basis of an analysis of reliable identifiable characteristics.
Signs of the structure, regarding which there are any doubts,
should be excluded from the population being assessed.
The most effective identification is based on radiographs of teeth, which
make them sick during their treatment. Such documents objectively reflect
the structure of the teeth, which is used for identification. X-ray
The human dental apparatus is as individual as fingerprints. IN
in some cases, for example after complex dental treatment, accompanied by
by drilling and filling, such individual
changes that identification can be made through research
just one tooth.
Identification of a person using radiographs of skeletal bones
Radiographs of skeletal bones show a large number of
features of their structure, especially if radiographs were taken regarding
injuries. The set of details of bone structure, natural and acquired in
as a result of injury, is individual and sufficient for identification
research. A comparative study is carried out in the presence of lifetime
After X-rays are taken, post-mortem ones are prepared in the laboratory (Fig.
In this type of research, the most informative are complex
bones or bones with individual characteristics. Sometimes it is enough to
examine individual areas of bone tissue to obtain identification
ny conclusion. For example, in a comparative study of bone radiographs
skulls, a positive identification conclusion can be drawn on the basis
coincidences in the structure of the frontal sinuses, which, as a rule, have very
complex shape. Naturally, with this there should be no significant differences
in the structure of bones in other areas of radiographs.
37.6.
It is worth noting that the main tasks of law enforcement officers are to ensure
specialists with materials for conducting identification research
From the previous presentation it is quite obvious that in order to carry out
identification studies, the specialist must be provided with ma-
materials that originate from a famous person. These are photographs
x-rays, hair, medical documents, fingerprints, personal
things with traces of sweat, and similar objects. Their identity with analogues
similar objects from an unknown person allows us to conclude that
positive identification of a person's identity.
Detection and provision of such objects to specialists directly
responsibility of employees of the inquiry and investigation bodies. It is worth noting that they are not just obligatory
are committed to doing ϶ᴛᴏ, but are vitally interested in the fact that such objects would be
discovered, seized and provided to a specialist, since the result of their
Research is very important for solving and investigating crimes.
In the situation of preparing a comparative study, there may be two options:
rianta. The first, when there is a person or several persons from whom they must
samples may be taken for comparison. For example, it is necessary to carry out genotyping
poscopic examination of semen stains in cases of rape and have-
are suspected of committing it. The second option is an object that is not
it is necessary to compare, there is, for example, the skull of the corpse of an unknown person -
ka, but there are no objects to compare with it, i.e. no assumptions about
the identity of the deceased.
In the second situation, it is extremely important to carry out investigative work aimed at
to identify missing persons, presumed dead in the investigation
due to the occasion. And only then confiscate them at their place of residence, work, etc.
materials for comparative research.
If the information about the deceased person is sufficiently complete, then, using
it, you can search through the files of missing citizens,
according to records of previously convicted persons and other methods. As a rule, it's easy
is carried out if the head of the deceased person being identified remains unchanged
not affected by any processes. If a person’s face is destroyed by trauma,
chemical influences or post-mortem changes, it is extremely important to initially
carry out facial reconstruction, and then carry out investigative work
Methods for reconstructing human appearance
The appearance of a dead person differs significantly from the appearance
alive, there is no tone of soft tissues inherent in living things, there is no facial expression and
etc. As a result of this, investigative work using photographs of labor
may be difficult. There are even more difficulties in this regard in
cases when the face of a corpse is changed even slightly by pronounced
mortal phenomena or there is damage on it. In such cases, it is recommended
It is recommended to make hand-drawn portraits of an unknown deceased person,
on whom he should look alive. It is possible to produce several
options with different facial expressions and different hairstyles.
With more deeply advanced post-mortem processes or with significantly
severe facial injuries before making a hand-drawn portrait of the deceased
For any person, it is advisable to carry out restoration of the soft tissues of the head,
this procedure is called a "deep toilet of the head of a corpse." After completing
the introduction of all procedures for the preparation of soft tissues of the head of a corpse significantly increases
the task of creating a hand-drawn portrait becomes easier.
If the soft tissues of the head are very damaged, then it is advisable
clear the skull of them and restore the external appearance of the person
The soft tissues of the head in this structure are closely connected with the bone base
Skull. Knowledge of these structural patterns provides the basis for special
sheet to restore the soft tissues of the head along the bone base. Some
of the structural elements of the head are restored reliably, some
purely approximate, some of the signs of appearance have no correlation at all -
tions with a bone base and is therefore reproduced by an expert in free
Several restoration methods have been developed and can be used in practice.
research (reconstruction) of the face from the skull.
The first to develop and begin to use the so-called plastic
method of facial reconstruction from the skull. The essence of the method is step-by-step application
plastic mass (for example, plasticine) on the skull (or its plaster cast)
pyu) taking into account knowledge of the distribution patterns of soft tissue thickness
at various points of the head. The work ends with choosing a hairstyle (maybe
there may be several options) and applying makeup. Various types of
course photographs of the reconstructed head, which can be used in
work to establish a person’s identity.
The second option for the method of restoring the appearance is to perform
hand-drawn portrait. This kind of work takes less time, but requires
significant artistic skills and therefore inaccessible to many of
experts.
In order to eliminate the shortcomings of the methods mentioned above, it was developed
combined graphic method (CGM) of facial reconstruction from the skull.
The essence of the method is that, taking into account the structure of the skull, ready-made designs are selected
sketches of appearance elements. It is worth noting that they are applied to the skull in order to correctly
th reproduction of facial proportions. Then, if necessary, the resulting
The image is completed by a specialist. The method is less labor intensive than
the first two, all work can be completed in 2-3 days, and if necessary
faster and faster. This method can be used by any specialist who has undergone
special training, artistic abilities are not required
At the initial stage of introducing the KGM method into practical work,
raised doubts about the quality of the reproduced image. At the same time,
They have now dispersed. Practice has proven that the method gives good results.
results. For example, when investigating a series of crimes committed
A.R. Chikatilo, facial reconstructions from the skulls of skeletonized corpses of me-
Tod KGM were performed 12 times, in ten cases the identity of the dead was
installed using a reconstructed exterior.
area, a skeletonized corpse was discovered, in addition to the bones preserved
Only the mummified skin of the anterior surface of the chest was removed. on it
Damage caused by a piercing weapon was identified. Research
Examination of the skeleton revealed that the corpse was of a 20-30 year old woman. According to
turnip's appearance was restored. Certain proportions of the skull are significant
significantly different from the norm, which made it possible to suggest that
that the deceased woman was mentally disabled.
Based on this assumption, employees of the search unit
niya sent requests to the regions neighboring Rostov, in which they asked
can I send information about mentally handicapped women aged from
20 to 30 years old, which have disappeared from the sight of medical treatment providers
institutions in 1983. In response to such requests, hundreds of additional
documents with descriptions of women, some of them with photographs. Prosmat-
collecting materials, employee of the search department of the Criminal Investigation Department of the Internal Affairs Directorate of the Rostov Region
noted a significant external resemblance to the woman who disappeared in Volgograds-
region - Lyudmila K., born in 1959, with a reconstructed external
with the appearance of a dead citizen.
At the next stage of work, specialists, by identifying
On-line examination established that the deceased would indeed be Lyudmila
K. born in 1959, lived in Volgograd. (Fig. 37-12)
During the preliminary investigation and in court it was proven that in the summer of 1983
year A.R. Chikatilo met at the railway station in Shakhty
Ms. K., suffering from mental illness. For the purpose of killing her
For sexual reasons, he deceptively lured her into the forest belt.
It is interesting to note that there is unexpected
attacked, stripped the victim, inflicted multiple injuries with a knife
tso, neck, chest and stomach. The victim died from these injuries. Chikatilo
mocked the corpse, cut off breasts, cut out genitals. It is important to note that the clothes of the victims
He took you with him and hid him in the forest belt.
The given example clearly demonstrates the meaning and place of re-
facial structures based on the skull in search and investigative work to uncover
tia and crime investigation.
Having a substantiated version of the identity of the deceased person, employees
law enforcement agencies must collect full-fledged materials
fishing for identification research. It is worth saying that to get this
type of materials a number of sources can be used.
It is advisable to identify and seize this type of information
with the participation of a forensic specialist.
The quantity and quality of the identified and researched information
The results of the identification study depend greatly.
FORENSIC MEDICAL RESEARCH OF DOCUMENTS
In the previous parts of the textbook, the possibilities of judicial
dicine in the study of material objects that are sources
medical and biological information. In particular, studies were described
corpses, living people and material evidence. At the same time, important for the right-
protective activities, conclusions can be obtained without difficulty
direct study of material objects, only through the analysis of information
This kind of information can be contained in a variety of documents.
data, photo and video materials, drawings, diagrams, etc. In the majority
cases, these media will be evidence in the case, therefore
Therefore, their forensic medical examination is carried out in the form of an examination,
it is usually called an examination based on case materials. Analysis of various kinds
documents containing special information may be subject to review
by medical doctors outside the scope of the examination, in these cases it is formalized as
research or specialist consultation.
1The relationship between the concepts of “personal identification” and “personal identity”
3.1Theoretical ideas of foreign authors
3.2 Concepts of domestic psychology
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The term “personal identification”, derived from the medieval Latin word identifico – “I identify”, denotes a mechanism whose operation is based on the existence of an emotional connection between an individual and other people, primarily his parents, leading to assimilation, most often unconsciously, with these significant others. Focusing on another person as a model significantly increases the indicators of social learning. Due to identification, a small child develops behavioral stereotypes that form personality traits, determines value orientations and gender-role identity - this is an established empirical fact.
Identification also acts as one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of another person. There are many experimental studies of the process of identification and elucidation of its role in the communication process. In particular, a close connection has been established between identification and another phenomenon that is similar in content - empathy.
The phenomenon of identification was first described in the works of Z. Freud in 1899 and is studied in detail by both psychoanalysts and behaviorist or cognitive science-oriented researchers. In Soviet psychological science, many interesting theoretical and empirical studies have been devoted to the study of this phenomenon (Vygotsky L.S., Kon I.S., Mukhina V.S., etc.)
The purpose of this work is to reveal the concept of “personal identification”. This goal determines the solution of the following tasks:
1. Consider the relationship between the concepts of “identification” and “identity”;
2. Describe the mechanism of personal identification in ontogenesis;
3. Give an idea of some domestic and foreign theories of personal identification.
1 The relationship between the concepts of “personal identification” and “personal identity”
The concept " identification"introduced by the Austrian neuropathologist, psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud.
In modern psychology, this concept covers the following intersecting areas of mental reality:
1. Situational likening (usually unconscious) of oneself to a significant other (for example, a parent) as a model based on an emotional connection with him. Through the mechanism of identification, from early childhood a child begins to develop many personality traits and behavioral stereotypes, gender identity and value orientations. Situational identification often occurs during children's role-play.
2. Stable identification of oneself with a significant other, the desire to be like him. There are primary and secondary identification. Primary identification is the identification of a child (infant) first with the mother, then with the parent, whose gender the child recognizes as his own (gender identification). Secondary identification is identification later in life with people other than parents.
3. The mechanism of psychological defense, which consists of unconscious assimilation to an object that causes fear or anxiety.
4. Group identification - stable identification of oneself with someone. (large or small) social group or community, acceptance of its goals and value system, awareness of oneself as a member of this group or community.
Synonyms for the concept of “personal identification” are “auto-identification”, “self-identification”.
Thus, identification (auto-identification) is a psychological process of self-identification, identity formation, i.e. identity can be considered as a result of the action of the identification mechanism
In social psychology " identity“- is considered as an aspect of the “I” and is defined as the individual’s experience and awareness of self-identity, integrity and indivisibility in space, as well as constancy in time (E. Erikson, 1986). Today, the problem of personal identity is being solved by researchers in the socio-psychological key of intersubjective macrosocial and macrosocial interaction. Consideration of the problem of “I” in the context of studying the constitutive role of significant and generalized “Others” in the process of achieving identity can be attributed to a number of foreign and domestic researchers studying the role of other people in the process of personal self-awareness, self-attitude and self-identification. Existing scientific developments, to one degree or another, have formalized in psychological science a general view of the problem of identity as a result of the identification processes of a person, realized during the course of subjective life history in interaction with the individual psychophysiological potential and the social context of its existence.
Consciousness of one’s identity for a person is not just knowledge of oneself, but a dynamic attitude, a certain attitude towards oneself.
Particularly important in this case is identification with one or another social (age, gender, ethnic, economic, professional, etc.) group. To understand a person’s self-awareness, it is very important which roles and groups a person names when characterizing himself.
Many researchers also note the aspect that identification with another without maintaining a certain distance would mean dissolution in another, the loss of one’s own self. Hypertrophy of “alienation,” on the contrary, means an inability for emotional intimacy, which presupposes sympathy (literally, joint feeling).
2 Mechanism of personal identification in ontogenesis
To illuminate the mechanism of personal identification in ontogenesis, let’s move on to consider the works of V. S. Mukhina.
There are two main stages in the development of self-awareness. The first is the appropriation of the structure of self-awareness through the mechanism of interpersonal identification. The structure is characterized by basic phenomena: name, claim to recognition, gender, vision of oneself in time. The second stage is the formation of a worldview and a system of personal meanings. Here the mechanisms of identification and separation operate at the emotional and cognitive levels. A developed personality predicts himself in the future, forms an image of his life position, and “saves his face” when interacting with others. However, it is suggested that in extreme cases, natural separateness can lead to alienation.
V.S. Mukhina accordingly suggests three possibilities for development: hyperbolic identification with other individuals, isolation from them, and harmonious interaction [ibid.].
Personality characteristics for all possible options for the development of these parts of self-awareness are offered by A. Curle [cit. from 5]http://psylib.org.ua/books/ivanv01/refer.htm - s17. It should be noted that his work, devoted mainly to general issues of the relationship between personal and social identities, is distinguished by a high level of elaboration of the problem. To denote personal identity, he uses the term “awareness - identity” - “identity of awareness”, for social - “belonging identity”.
First of all, A.Curle characterizes the identity of belonging. It means a lot for the preservation and stability of a person, maintains his status quo. Many lack traditional objects for identification. As a result, we are more likely to desperately search for new types of identity. A.Curle says that it is precisely in these searches that clubs of fans of football teams arise, which, due to an excess of solidarity, commit acts of vandalism. For the same reason, many cults develop. However, identity of belonging has a downside. If a person belongs to a certain community, then the community psychologically belongs to him.
The identity of awareness is distinguished by its acceptance of itself, its shortcomings without self-blame, and its strength without self-praise. At the same time, belonging identity reacts very painfully to role inconsistency. In a sense, both identities oppose each other. However, their opposition largely depends on the severity of each of the identities.
Sarjeveladze in his research highlights only a few aspects of this broad topic and examines the identification mechanism from the point of view of what has been said about the “givenness” and “createability” of social status. He especially draws attention to the role of identification in the processes of sexual differentiation. As shown in numerous studies, anatomical or gender does not directly determine the formation of a repertoire of psychosexual role behavior corresponding to the individual’s gender. An important factor in this process is adequate gender self-identification. From an early age, a child begins to identify himself with the male or female gender. However, this process of correlation is not a simple statement of belonging: the child, by identifying himself with representatives of the male or female sex, assimilates the repertoire of masculine or feminine role behavior, examples of which exist in the immediate environment. The psychological meaning of such assimilation lies in the desire of the growing individual to internally master the desired status of a boy and a future man or a girl and a future woman. This mechanism of status self-determination, when an individual not only adapts to others in terms of his role behavior, but also adapts others to himself and to his social role, performs an important regulatory function at all stages of an individual’s life path in terms of its interaction with the social world.
The imaginary mastery of a different status state and overcoming the status “assignment” in the process of identification in childhood, as Sarzheveladze notes, can have two functions: protective and developmental. An example of a protective identification function is the so-called. "identification with the aggressor". The child, trying to overcome the unpleasant moments associated with the given role of the object of aggression, compensates for such a given role by identifying himself with the one who acts in the role and status of the aggressor (father, older brother, teacher, etc.). Such status “reincarnation” can serve the purpose of reducing fear and anxiety. An example of the developmental function of identification in terms of overcoming status assignments and imaginary mastery of the role of an adult can be numerous so-called “illusory games”, for example, “my house” or “mother and daughter”. In the process of these games, a number of social role functions are internally acquired (functions of an adult, parent, etc.) and therefore such games really serve, as Gross said [cit. according to 10], “preparatory school of life.” These are the patterns of the personality identification mechanism in ontogenesis.
3 Personal identification theories
3.1 Theoretical ideas of foreign authors
3. Freud considered the essence of the phenomenon of identification in connection with the nature of the ontogenetic development of the child and socio-psychological processes within the social group [cit. according to 2]. The identification process, on the one hand, is associated with the process of satisfying primary vital needs, for example, the need for food, while it is assumed that the baby “absorbs” the image of the nurse along with food (the so-called analytical identification), on the other hand, it is associated either by the child’s libidinal aspirations to take the position of a parent of the opposite sex, or by relieving anxiety caused by the fact that the individual is the object of aggression. Identification seems to be to some extent a process that served as a means of satisfying some primary (mainly biogenic) need. However, it is unjustified to absolutize this function and limit it exclusively to it. As a result, the desire to “be like others,” expressed in the process of identification with society, is not exclusively a means of satisfying other needs, but also appears to be an independent driving force of human life.
E. Erikson established the dependence of a child’s personal characteristics on his relationship with his parents at various stages of development. E. Erikson noted that in adolescence, personal identification or role confusion is formed, when the child is faced with the task of comprehending his various social roles (son or daughter, student, friend, etc.). The positive qualities developed in the previous stages significantly increase the chances of successful psychosocial identification. A distrustful, shy and insecure teenager with a heightened sense of guilt and inferiority has difficulties with identification [cit. according to 2].
Erikson's ideas that identity is fluid throughout life; identity is not autonomy, were accepted in all psychological and sociological schools.
One of the most famous continuers of E. Erikson's research, American psychologist J. Marcia, considering the theory too general and theoretical, not always suitable for practice, tried to bring it closer to life. According to Marcia, identity is an ego structure, an internally self-creating, dynamic organization of abilities, beliefs and individual history. The structure of the “ego” is revealed through problem solving, through ways of overcoming the crisis.
Depending on whether the identity is acquired independently or not, whether it is formed or not, after a crisis in youth, an American researcher classifies identity into four types: diffuse - the self is split, blurred, a person loses a sense of continuity and identity in a changing world; internal chaos prevails; mirror - I am a reflection of other people, I am unable to decide and choose on my own; mental plagiarism prevails; deferred - I - has many possibilities, but does not have the power of choice, indecision prevails; mature - I - with a sense of my own separateness, independence; I know what I am striving for in a complex dynamic world.
The theory of identity within the framework of the American version of psychoanalysis is developed by A. Waterman. He seeks to highlight the value aspects of this phenomenon. Identity is the presence of its main elements in a person: clear self-determination, choice of goals, values and beliefs that he follows in life. Identification is inseparable from interaction with the value identity to which the individual claims. According to Waterman, four areas are most significant for the formation of identity: choosing a profession, accepting and revaluing moral and religious beliefs, developing political views, and accepting a set of social roles.
The study of identity proceeds in a different methodological direction symbolic interactionism. The first principle of his original approach, J. Mead (the founder of the movement), distinguishes between two types of identity: conscious - a person himself reflects on his behavior, he is not autonomous, but is free to think about the goals and tactics of behavior; unconscious - a person unreflectively accepts norms of behavior, habits, rituals. There are certain ways of behavior that are identical in essence. We expect a certain reaction from a person, without thinking about the latter. The identification of meanings proceeded along with the formation of reflection and linguistic rules. On the one hand, society determines the identity of the individual by setting norms and laws of existence, on the other hand, the individual himself sets his own definition in the choice of goals and values. Exceptional importance is attached to symbolic communication: verbalized and non-verbalized. After all, the symbolism of communication is the result of human evolution and the content of the development of relations between society and the individual.
E. Hoffman identified three types of identity: social, personal, Identity. Goffman introduces the concept of “identity politics,” i.e., a person’s influence on information about himself produced on the social environment [ibid.]. There are various techniques that implement this policy: the technique of avoidance, the technique of compensation (distorting one’s opinion about oneself), the technique of deidentification (changing signs of identity). Developing Erikson's idea of basic trust, Goffman believes that the purpose of such techniques remains to protect oneself in the communication network and help in mastering critical situations. However, unlike Erickson, he explores how “basic trust” helps to cope with critical situations and, in his opinion, the ability to master space and time constitutes a person’s main ability.
The third direction of American socio-psychological thought, which attaches special importance to the category of “identity” and, accordingly, deals with it in detail is cognitive psychology. Its representatives X. Tajfel, J. Turner, G. Breakwell define identity as a cognitive system that: plays the role of regulating behavior. It has two subsystems: linguistic (self-determination in terms of physical, intellectual, moral) and social (belonging to race, gender, nationality).
In this case, the structure of identity is determined by the following components: a biological organism (the core of identity, but over time it becomes less and less significant); content component (characteristics that determine the uniqueness of a person); value (positive or negative assessments of principles, situations, personalities); chronological (development of identity in subjective time) [ibid].
The objective condition for identification within the framework of this approach is the social context. Social identity ensures the formation of the content and value structure of the individual. The structure of identity develops throughout life. The formation of identity is carried out through two processes: assimilation, the selection of new components and their adaptation to the structure by determining the meaning and values of the components, new and old.
Cognitive psychology thus shows the constant variability of identity (it develops throughout life and is not necessarily related to the biopsychological life cycle, as in Erikson).
3.2 Concepts of domestic psychology
Vygotsky L.S. formulates the idea that the processes of the human psyche are based on interpersonal relationships. An individual forms his inner world through interiorization of historically established forms and activities. “First, other people act towards the child, then he himself interacts with others, he begins to act on himself” [cit. according to 6]. Understanding of the Self occurs in line with the “social situation of development.” This situation is a unique, specific and unique relationship between the child and the social environment. This situation is the starting point for all dynamic changes occurring in the development of a given period. L.S. Vygotsky attaches particular importance not to conformity, but to the degree of independence, confidence and independence. The transformative-activity principle of the person himself is important.
In turn, S. L. Rubinstein formulates ideas that have become fundamental for Soviet psychology and philosophy. In his interpretation, the essence of a person is fundamentally intersubjective, irreducible to productivity, to a separate result, to a set of social roles, functional role masks, to the existence of a person as a member or agent of society, open and open to endless development. “Do not turn a person into a mask - this is the first commandment of ethics.” Personal self-determination and identification cannot be a monological matter. The problem of self-determination, according to Rubinstein, initially represents correlation with other subjects. “The specificity of the human way of existence lies in the degree of correlation between self-determination and determination by Others” [ibid.]. He considered the main criterion of self-determination to be the activity of one’s life position as a result of the interaction of the objective process of communication with Others and the subjective internal process of self-determination. Self-determination and definition by Others are mutual determinants. In his interpretation, Rubinstein emphasizes that it is impossible to reduce the essence of man, to reduce it to some technological manifestations.
B.F. Porshnev in his social theories attached great importance to identification as assimilation and adaptation. “We” are formed through the mutual likening of people, i.e., the action of the mechanisms of imitation and infection, and “they” - by imitating these mechanisms by prohibiting anything from being imitated or by refusing a person to submit to imitation. Any closedness in history: clan, family, tribal, ethnocultural, cultural constitutes itself from “We - They”. Through isolation and assimilation, the individual receives opportunities for development, self-realization and personalization [cit. according to 5].
In general, in Soviet psychology, identification was assessed as a positive course of personality development. Authors such as N. I. Alekseeva, A. V. Burov, T. P. Gavrilova, E. M. Dubovskaya, T. I. Komisarenko, R. L. Krichevsky, T. A. Modzharova, V. A. Rakhmatsheva, A.P. Soprikov identified the following socially significant features in the process under study: the formation of the social qualities of an individual who has taken the position of an active moral subject. This is a constantly operating mechanism of personality development, its structure-forming factor [cit. according to 5].
In their opinion, identification is multi-level and multi-component. Typically, there are three main components: emotional, cognitive and behavioral.
Value, normative, and role identifications are possible. The functions of identification are diverse: association in “We” groups, spiritual unification, self-awareness of group affiliation, structure-forming principle of communication, personality formation.
In Soviet social and psychological thought, most likely, the priority of the social prevails in explaining identification and identity (with the exception of the works of Vygotsky and Porshnev, which are quite deep for one-sided statements). Individuals are often presented as “unreasonable agents” who only support models of social production, and this explains the fascination with “identification” (this idea prevails in many modern psychological and sociological concepts).
In general, the concept of identity was quite rare in Russian, modern thought until the early 90s. Depending on the axiomatics, the meaning of “I” and, accordingly, the use of concepts changed: Spirkin was concerned about “I” as a carrier and element of self-consciousness, Mikhailov F. T. was interested in “I” as a source of creative abilities, D. I. Dubrovsky saw in “I » center that integrates and activates the factor of subjective activity.
The popularizer of research into various aspects of identification in Soviet philosophy was I. S. Kon. His interest in the study of identity is driven by the desire to capture the human “I” in its unity. This requires complex theoretical models: “identity, ego, super-ego”, etc. The complexity and multifunctionality of the “human” is determined by the fact that “the human psyche must constantly process and coordinate a huge amount of information. The more heterogeneous the internal and external, the more diverse such information, the sharper his individual sense of self will be and the more complex and differentiated his characteristic self-image.” Back in the late 60s, the author noticed that the greater the information exchange, the less time remains for reflection or time becomes denser, increasing mental stress. The domestic researcher identifies the following types of identity:
1) psychophysiological identity - unity and continuity of physiological and mental processes and structure of the body;
2) a social system of properties, thanks to which an individual becomes a social individual, a member of a community, a group, and involves the division of individuals according to their social class affiliation, social status and learned norms;
3) personal - unity and continuity of life, goals, motives.
I. S. Kon’s important contribution to the development of identity theory was not only that he was one of the first to consider these problems. Using the findings and ideas of domestic and foreign authors, he interpreted identity as a conditional construct of personality. This construct is not static and constantly contains dynamic motivational tendencies, balances internal and external impulses.
Individual identity is understood as a way of subjective organization of events, as an internal dynamic structure that integrates individual aspects of the personality associated with the awareness and experience of oneself as a representative of a certain gender, group, etc. into a single whole without loss of originality. It is recognized that identity is a cognitive tool, a hypothetical structure that allows one to organize ideas about a person and his way of life. However, most authors offer rather eclectic, schematic interpretations of identity or identification, often simply interpreting the research of foreign authors.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we briefly note the significant theoretical provisions. Personal identification is understood as similarity to “significant others” people. Identity is the result of the action of this mechanism. The identification mechanism performs an important function in the development of the human personality from early childhood.
The work examined various approaches to the problem. To summarize, we note that in the concept of MFA and its followers, greater independence is given to the person himself in the formation of identity than in the Freudian-Eriksonian approach. Cognitive psychology shows the constant variability of identity (it develops throughout life and is not necessarily associated with the biopsychological cycle of life, like Erikson).
In Soviet psychology, identification was generally assessed as a positive course of personality development. Authors such as D. I. Dubrovsky, I. S. Kon, V. S. Mukhina identified the following socially significant features in the process under study: the formation of the social qualities of an individual who has taken the position of an active moral subject. This is a constantly operating mechanism of personality development, its structure-forming factor. Identification can act as an explanatory principle for a wide range of phenomena of assimilation and isolation. Its content is the mechanism of interpersonal and group integration and differentiation. The difficulty of studying identification lies in the fact that this phenomenon is imbued with other psychological and social phenomena, in which a systematic analysis of the phenomenon is relevant.
Thus, the goal of the work has been achieved and the problems have been solved.
Bibliography
1. Andreeva G.M. Social psychology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1988. - 432 pages.
2. Antonova N.V. The problem of personal identification in the interpretation of modern psychoanalysis, interactionism and cognitive psychology. // Questions of psychology. 1996. N1. pp. 131-143.
3. Large psychological dictionary. / Ed. B. G. Meshcheryakova, V. P. Zinchenko. - St. Petersburg. ; M.: Prime-Eurosign: OLMA-Press, 2003. - 672 pp.
4. Demchenko O.N., Mytil A.V. Social identification and adaptation of personality, // Sociological studies. - 1995. - No. 6. - 110-119 pp.
5. Zakovorotnaya M.V. - Human identity. Social and philosophical aspects. - Rostov-on-Don: SKNTsVSh. – 1999. – 261 pp.
6. Ivanova V.V. General issues of personal self-awareness. M., 1999. – 312 pages.
7. Kon I.O. In search of oneself: Personality and its self-awareness. – M.: Politizdat, 1984. - 335 pp.
8. Mukhina V.S. Phenomenology of development and existence of personality. – M.: MPSI, Voronezh: NPO MODEK, 1999. – P. 178-186 pp.
9. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. – 866 pages.
10. Sarzheveladze N.I. Personality and its interaction with the social environment. - Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 1989. - 204 pp.
Identification is the establishment of the identity of various phenomena, objects, things, persons by their characteristic individual features inherent only to them, as well as by the ability of these objects, when interacting with each other, to display (reflect) their properties in other objects.
The investigation of any criminal or civil case begins with identifying the victim, suspect and other persons involved in the case. In the vast majority of cases, this task is resolved by the investigative authorities by examining identification documents. However, in a number of cases, the suspect presents false documents, for example, in order to evade responsibility for a serious crime, from paying alimony, etc.
Unable to establish the identity of such a person through investigative actions, investigators resort to the help of experts: criminologists and forensic doctors. The need for forensic medical knowledge arises both when examining living people and when it is necessary to establish the identity of a person when examining the corpses of unknown persons, dismembered and skeletal remains. Scientific data on the medical and medical-biological properties of a person, their reflections, methods of identification, research methods and evaluation criteria constitute the content of this section of forensic medicine.
Forensic medical identification of a person is a set of techniques and methods aimed at establishing the belonging of remains to a specific person using a verbal portrait, dental status, special signs (congenital anomalies, traces of healing of injuries, medical interventions, tattoos, birthmarks, etc.), genetic tissue analysis in comparison with lifetime documented medical and anthropological data.
Forensic medical examination is of leading importance in establishing the identity of unidentified corpses. The identification process consists of comparing medical and biological data about the wanted persons and the discovered corpses.
Thus, it is necessary to distinguish between forensic and forensic identification.
Forensic identification is the process of establishing the identity of a specific object based on the totality of its general and particular characteristics, carried out through comparative study of them in order to obtain operational or judicial evidence.
The identity of material objects is determined by a number of features in which the properties of these objects are manifested. An identification complex is only that set of features that, when identified and carefully studied, can serve as a sufficient basis for a specific identification of an object. The essence of identification signs (see Identification signs) lies in their relative stability, originality, expressed in deviations of signs from average, typical values or norms, rare repetition, their specificity for a given object, and finally, accessibility for identification, study and comparative research.
The identification process is based on a comparison of a set of identification features, a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the matches and differences of the compared features and their reflections on the compared objects.
The basic principles of forensic identification can be expressed as follows:
- - The process of identification is defined (for which the question of identity must be resolved) and defined through the use of objects;
- - Objects of identification are divided into variables and relative immutable ones, which are stable at the time determined by their identity;
- - The identification process includes analysis - a deep study of objects and their properties, using methods and techniques that complement each other and provide objective information about the object, and synthesis - a comparison and evaluation of objects in their synthetic unity;
- - Comparison of each characteristic should be considered in dynamics, as identified objects can appear in different forms;
In addition, one should keep in mind the variability of symptoms over time and the possibility of deliberate distortion of signs.
The basic principles of forensic identification are named and fully relate to the identification of the object of examination. Define a person - identification of a specific person on the set of all properties and features that distinguish him from others.
One of the main tasks of the preliminary investigation is to establish the identity of the victim or suspect of committing a crime.
In investigative practice, there is a need to establish the face of a living person (for example, a criminal who is hiding from the investigative authorities; a detainee who refuses to give his name and surname or deliberately distorts them; a convicted person evading serving a sentence) or a corpse - an unknown and unidentified subject who died from violent influences or sudden death.
The possibilities of identifying a person, both a living person and a corpse, are based on the individual uniqueness of the characteristics of each person. These include: gender, age, race, features of the anatomical structure, anthropometric indicators, antigenic properties, the presence of certain diseases, traces of various injuries, changes due to profession, tattoos, etc.
When corpses of unknown or unidentified persons are discovered, police officers, with the participation of a forensic expert, carry out mandatory fingerprinting. If the deceased was previously subjected to fingerprinting, then his identity can be established using this method. The location of papillary patterns on the soles of the feet is also strictly individual for each person.
The procedure for inspecting the place where the corpse of an unknown person was found, the organization and tactics of subsequent identification actions, and the recording of unidentified corpses throughout Russia are regulated in detail by the Instruction “on the organization and tactics of identifying citizens from unidentified corpses of patients and children who, due to health or age, cannot report information about yourself”, approved by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia and agreed with the Prosecutor General's Office of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (1986).
It is important to immediately record the features of the verbal portrait as completely as possible at the scene of discovery of the corpse, since facial features change very quickly due to post-mortem processes.
As technical techniques and means of summarizing external features, they use, in particular, the preparation of “synthetic” and hand-drawn portraits and so-called identikit photographs, which are used to search for identified individuals. Composite (synthetic) portraits and “photo identikit” are produced by a forensic expert from many fragments of photographs of different persons using the composition method. Painted portraits are made by artists based on the words of persons who know well the signs of the wanted person.
Establishing a person’s identity is one of the most important tasks of law enforcement.
telial activity. Determine a person's identity in most cases
means determining his last name, first name, patronymic, year of birth, place of birth-
tions and other installation data. For the purposes of identifying
nerds and a variety of methods are used. Most common in
economic, law enforcement and some other areas of activity
person is a method of identifying a person using personal documents
century, which are designed to confirm the basic basic data of human
ka. The main identification document in our country is the passport.
port. If a person displays it or a passport is found on him (or
document similar to it), then it is considered that this person is the one whose data
These are in the passport. To confirm this, a photo is placed in the passport.
tography, which allows the method of comparison of appearance to confirm or
disprove the identity of the passport holder.
In everyday life, in operational investigative activities and in some other areas
This technique uses simple “recognition” of a person based on appearance. IN
In this case, a person recognizes another by comparing the person in front of him.
him of a face with a mental image of a specific person familiar to him from some
some installation data. The process of such recognition is largely
least subjective.
For the purposes of crime investigation, “simple recognition” transforms
were involved in an investigative action - identification, which is carried out scientifically
justified methodology in the manner prescribed by procedural law
giving.
However, it is possible to identify a person based on appearance
not always. It is impossible, for example, to carry out identification when there is no
people who have a mental image in their head, i.e. people who
could identify an unknown person. Don't rely on simple
identification in cases where the identification or non-identification of a person has
of great importance for the case or the identifying person is interested in the result-
tah identification.
A person cannot be identified when his signs
appearance has changed significantly for some reason.
For example, a lot of time has passed and appearance has changed, or in cases
working with corpses when significant post-mortem facial changes have occurred
and other parts of the body.
And of course, identification is impossible when the subjects being studied are
objects are insignificant parts of the human body, its traces,
separate selections, displays of appearance or various kinds of functional
features and similar objects.
In cases where simple identification is impossible, but identification is required
determine the identity of a person, or in critical cases carry out identification
ational research aimed at establishing a person’s identity.
Identification theory was developed within the framework of criminology. When checking
Forensic medical identification uses theoretical principles
research on forensic identification.
According to the theory of forensic identification, one should
distinguish between several concepts. When identifying a person’s identity,
the fictitious object is the person’s personality.
In most cases, by personal identification we mean
the process of determining a person's basic attitudinal data in relation to
to an object unknown to us. For example, we have a skeletonized corpse
a person (object X), about whom we do not know, what his name is, where he was born -
Xia, who his parents are, etc. A very specific person A has disappeared somewhere,
who is wanted by the internal affairs authorities. Due to the operations carried out
investigative measures, the assumption arises that the corpse of X is
is the corpse of citizen A. In order to prove this, we must investigate
ty forensic medical identification of the person. At the same time, we need
compare material objects, they are called identifying objects,
object from the corpse X - object X and an essentially comparable object from
citizen A - object A. Most often in the situation under consideration, the object
X is the skull of a corpse, object A is lifetime photographs of a citizen
A. We do not know from whom object X comes. Origin of object A
known - these are photographs of the wanted citizen A. If the
identification test by a specialist will be positive, then
Therefore, the identity of the person unknown to us, with whose corpse we are working -
Yes, it will be installed. We can say that corpse X is the corpse of a citizen
Ah, the identity has been identified. If it turns out that the result is negative
result of identification research, then the identity of the deceased remains
is unknown, and citizen A is not found.
By comparing identifying objects, the forensic scientist identifies in them
many signs, in the example under consideration these are some elements
human facial structure, for example the width of the nose, determined by the skull
corpse and the width of the nose in photographs of citizen A. Coincidence of individual
signs, they are called identification signs, does not provide a basis
for a positive identification output. But the complex of identification
cation features, if it is sufficiently individual, allows you to make
positive conclusion, of course, in the absence of discrepant recognition
cov. If different reliable signs are detected, the result is identical.
personality classification can only be negative, no matter how big
there was a set of matching signs.
As mentioned above, the set of matching features must be
unique, i.e. in such a combination they should be inherent only in one
new person. Ideally, theoretically, currently the body of research
of the studied signs should occur no more often than once every 5-6 million
liards (for one person out of the entire world population). For practice
For commercial purposes it may be somewhat less.
To evaluate a set of characteristics, “quality” is of great importance.
individual identification features. They must be reliably determined
divisible, i.e. clearly and unambiguously identified on objects. Sustainable
in time, i.e. unchanged over a certain period of time
neither. And independent from each other, i.e. they in their manifestation should not
be connected with each other. For example, a person with a large mouth may have
any eye color, therefore the identification mark is large
the mouth is not related to the trait - eye color, they are independent of each other.
There are signs that are, to one degree or another, dependent on each other.
For example, in people with the presence of epicanthus (a special structure of the internal corner-
la eyes, characteristic of Mongoloids) in the vast majority of cases
there will be black or dark hair. Therefore the identification sign
The presence of epicanthus is associated with the characteristic dark hair. Therefore, when
assessment of the set of identification characteristics; interrelated characteristics
must be assessed as one comparable characteristic.
Of course, the provisions of the theory of forensic identification are more
are numerous and complex than those presented above.
Many of the provisions of the theory of identification are still being debated by scientists,
some are accepted by some and not accepted by other researchers. Know-
When reading the relevant literature, one may come across terms that
The theories of identification do not pretend to be rigorous scientific conclusions.
Dovs, they are given only as a tool for understanding the described below
specific objects and methods of identifying a person.
Thus, in most cases, when carrying out identification
personality of a person, specialists have one task to make a comparison
ness of objects, one known (it is known that it originated from the civil
nina A), and the second - unknown (object X).
Known objects are called differently in different cases, in some they are
samples for comparison, in others - identification material about the missing
missing person (photos, records in medical documents), etc.
These objects must be such that they have characteristics comparable to
signs in an unknown object. For example, it is impossible to compare pelvic
high bones of a corpse with intravital photographs of a human head, pelvic
bones can only be compared with intravital bone radiographs
Objects X, objects of unknown origin, can be very different
nificent by nature. Let's divide them into the following groups:
1. A living person.
In law enforcement activities, a living person is one of the objects
identification can occur in a number of situations. First of all this
cases when he cannot or does not want to communicate about himself the basic
actual data (child, sick person, criminal hiding his
real name). In the vast majority of cases, living people are identified
established by documents or photographs, and only in rare cases
They are identified using special methods.
The main methods of personal identification in such situations can be
be: comparison of a person’s characteristics (gender, age, appearance
ty), including portrait identification; fingerprint identification;
identification by the condition of the dental apparatus; genoiposcopic identification
fication; odorological identification and some other types.
II. Human corpse (unchanged).
People who died in conditions where it was not obvious and did not have documents with them
cops fall into this category of objects of identification. According to statistics,
in our country about 20 thousand corpses are discovered a year, in relation to
whom it is necessary to carry out work to establish their identity.
Most of the corpses whose appearance has not been changed by post-mortem processes
cesses, is recognized by relatives and friends, but some part of all
also requires identification research.
These studies can be carried out using the same methods that describe
ranks are higher for living people, with the exception, perhaps, of odorological
III. Corpses in a state of pronounced post-mortem or traumatic changes
Post-mortem destructive processes, intravital and post-mortem extensive
the damage alters the corpse so much that it cannot be identified. Poe-
the only reliable way is to identify the person of a special
using our methods.
In practice, I often had to deal with cases
mi, when the identification of the altered corpse was made by
identification by clothing. This method can only have an orienting value.
However, the final conclusion can be made only after identification
tion research. Methods that are applicable to this kind of objects are:
used for working with unaltered corpses, but their implementation is more
more complicated due to changes in the tissues of the corpse. For example, it is not possible directly
compare the appearance features of the deceased person (on identification
photographs) and a person in a lifetime photograph. It is necessary first or
qualitatively restore the soft tissues of the head, or clear the skull of os-
tats of soft tissues, and then compared using special
methods of the skull (the basis of the signs of the appearance of the human head) and signs
appearance in a lifetime photograph.
IV. Corpse parts.
Parts of a corpse as an object of identification can be found in a variety of
situations, for example, during mass disasters, during criminal dismemberment -
nii and in other situations.
If the body parts to be identified include the head and
hands of a corpse, then identification methods will not differ fundamentally from
described above for unaltered or altered corpses. Problems arose
exist in cases where the head and arms of the corpse are missing, this sharply reduces
The choice of identification methods is limited. By parts of the body it is possible to determine only
some general characteristics of a person: gender, age with one or another
accuracy, height. Identification by morphological characteristics is possible
only in the presence of any individualizing features, acquired
changes during life, for example, bone fractures, scar changes in the skin
life, tattoos and other similar distinctive characteristics (Fig.
In such cases, if there are objects of comparison, the most effective
vein method of genotyposcopic identification.
V. Blood, human secretions, pieces of tissue, hair.
Identification objects of this kind are most often found in the form
so-called traces of biological origin at the scene of the incident
viya. A large number of methods and techniques are used in relation to them.
group differentiation. This approach makes it possible to exclude or not exclude
the origin of an object from a specific person, but identification, in
in the strict understanding of this term, such methods are not carried out.
For these objects, the genotyping method is very promising.
copies that actually allow them to be identified.
When applied to blood stains, the method of odorant sometimes gives a good effect.
logical identification.
VI. Contact mapping of the human body surface.
The surface of the human body is very individual in its structure, it is
means that similar parts of the body of two different people cannot have
absolutely similar structure.
If a person touches any part of the body to the surface of some
any object, then under appropriate suitable conditions on the surface
a trace will remain of the object. In traceology, the surface leaving
the trace is usually called trace-forming, and the surface on which remains
Xia trace - trace-perceiving.
Traces can be different, for example, if with a trace-forming surface
ity, the substance passes to the trace-perceiving one, due to which the for-
If a trace is formed, such traces are usually called traces-layers. If
on the contrary, the substance passes from the trace-receiving surface to the trace
additional forming, then the traces are called traces-delaminations.
The most well-known and widespread in practice traces of such
the plan are traces of fingers and palms of hands. But there are also traces
lips, forehead skin, etc.
The most developed methods of fingerprint identification are identification
tification based on the display of papillary patterns of the fingers and palms of the hands. On
In practice, identification is sometimes successfully carried out using the fingerprints of others.
areas of the human body.
VII. Photo and video displays of a person’s appearance.
Currently, photo and video recording methods are widespread.
a person's appearance. Quite often these materials are objects
identification of a person. Typically, such studies are carried out by comparing
identification of signs of the structure of the human head, this process is called portrait-
new identification.
VIII. Written speech.
Speech is the linguistic form of expressing thoughts. In writing
thoughts are expressed by writing texts. Texts can be written in
print topics on various printing devices and then they will display
characteristic of a person: a set of words, phrases, construction of phrases and
If the text is written directly by a person’s hand (the so-called ru-
copied texts), then, in addition to the indicated characteristics of a person, it displays
His skills in making written signs, symbol combinations,
arrangement of words, lines, etc.
When working with such objects, identification can be carried out by
IX. Oral speech.
Oral speech is perceived by the human hearing aid. She can
be recorded on magnetic and some other media, such recordings
are called phonograms. The phonograms display some properties of the human
knowledge from purely physiological, for example parameters of the vocal cords, to
highly intellectual - speech culture, etc.
Personal identification based on comparison of phonograms is carried out with
using various phonoscopic techniques.
X. Other objects of human identification.
In practice, many other objects may be encountered, research
which may allow identification of a person. For example, for
recording of certain physiological functions, the body’s responses to
any influences, dynamic stereotypes - combinations of movements
a person when performing this or that action, and the like.
Objects in groups from the first to the fifth belong mainly to commercial
competence of forensic doctors, in groups from six to ten to competence
experts working in the field of traditional and non-traditional crime
leaf examination. Some of the identification objects may be
studied by both forensic doctors and criminologists, for example, appearance
human: papillary patterns; tattoos, etc.
Biomedical specialists use a variety of
new methods for conducting identification research. Let's dwell on
the most effective.
37.1. Identification by examining a person's physical appearance
In criminology, a person’s appearance is understood as a set of characteristics
human characteristics, perceived visually, or with the help of other organi-
new feelings. There is a group of morphological characteristics that reflect
the structure of the human body, for example the structure of the human head, and the group of di-
namical characteristics associated with a person’s performance of any
motor functions, such as gait.
Comparison of two objects during identification begins with comparison
the most general characteristics, such as gender, age, height, physique
tion, skin color, body proportions, etc.
This methodological approach allows us to exclude the identity of objects,
without resorting to labor-intensive research methods. For example, having established that
object X comes from a female person, and the one being compared with him
object A comes from a man, the specialist has the right not to produce
further research, making a negative identification conclusion.
Determination of sex
There are practically no problems with establishing gender if the
external or internal genitalia. If the object is examined in
If these organs are absent, sex determination is made by
identifying various signs of sex differences between men and
by women. These are the sizes of individual parts of the body, in women in the majority
there are fewer cases, and the development of muscles, and the structure of the pelvic bones,
turnips, etc. (Fig. 37-2) The floor can be installed quite easily by
studies of sex chromatin in cell nuclei.
Age determination
If the object of identification is a living person or a corpse without expression,
changes, then age determination is made by studying
signs of appearance and their features characteristic of a particular
period of a person’s life (methods for determining age are described in the chapter
When examining body parts, much depends on which parts are
are in stock. The most developed methods for determining age by age are
penalties for fusion of the sutures of the skull, abrasion of teeth, the structure of long tubular
bones, in young children and adolescents in terms of body size and its hour-
tey (including skeletal bones), according to the processes of ossification of bones of the acid
those hands, by changing teeth, and some others.
Definition of height
In living people and in corpses that do not have significant damage,
division of growth does not present any special difficulties. When are they researched?
parts of the body, then the determination of height is made by using the cor-
correlations between the sizes of individual parts of the human body and his overall growth
scrap. The best results are obtained when determining growth by the length of long
human tubular bones, such as the femur, etc. Accuracy in determining
growth is higher in the case of joint examination of the bones of the upper and lower
their limbs. If there is only a bone fragment, then the definition
growth is possible only with a sufficiently high probability of error.
Forensic doctors, in addition to those indicated, are determined and used in
process of identification, some other general characteristics, such as
such as anthropological type, left-handedness or right-handedness, etc.
Portrait identification
Portrait identification in relation to living people, as a rule, is carried out
Diagnosed by forensic experts. If you want to compare appearance
of a deceased person with lifetime photographs, then this is done by the
medical doctors.
In the course of portrait identification of a person, non-
so many techniques and methods.
The method of descriptive comparison is that sequentially
all visible parts of a person’s face are described: hair, face, its elements,
wrinkles and folds, individual characteristics and so on. At the same time,
measurements are taken of those elements of the facial structure that can be changed
Rens. It is important to measure proportions and dimensional relationships
characteristics, for example, the ratio of the width of the nose and the distance between the internal
early corners of the eyes and the like. The description is made according to the system
verbal portrait accepted in criminology. Most often portrait-
identification, when examining a corpse, is carried out using identification marks
photographs.
After describing the face of the corpse and the face of the person in the intravital photograph,
a comparison is made of the descriptions made for each of the positions. Revealing-
There are matching and non-matching features.
If most of the signs coincide, and discrepancies are explainable,
the influence of factors that are not essential for establishing identity, then
they decide to evaluate the totality of matching features.
If the population is sufficiently individual, then they conclude that it is identical.
the accuracy of the face of the corpse and the face of the person in the intravital photograph.
Differences in age and age are considered unimportant for assessing identity.
nature, due to the time gap between the lifetime fo-
filming and photographing the corpse, but the expert must assess the possibility
the occurrence of detected differences due to aging. Differences may
be caused by post-mortem changes in the face of the corpse, an assessment of this kind
distortions should also be made by an expert when conducting a portrait
identification. A significant influence in the emergence of differences can be played by
develop methods of photographing and working with photographic materials, the ability to
such distortions must be taken into account by the expert when assessing the
giving and non-matching signs.
The most significant features for the result of portrait identification are:
appearances that have an individual character, such as moles, scars,
tattoos and the like. However, when detecting and assessing them, it is necessary
we can remember that some of them could have arisen after being
photograph was taken during his lifetime and is therefore absent from it, but they have
place on the face of a corpse.
If teeth are visible in lifetime photographs of a person, then identification
The tional value of such photographs increases. Dimensions, relative positions
The formation of teeth and their structural features are valuable identification features.
If the complex of signs is insufficient for a categorical conclusion about
portrait identity and the absence of significant differences may be
a probabilistic positive conclusion was drawn.
In some cases, portrait identification is carried out by complete
or partial overlap of compared images, some
some other working methods.
Currently, computer systems are being created in our country and abroad.
programs for working with portrait images. For example, developed
programs that allow you to add signs of aging to a portrait or, conversely,
mouth, rejuvenate the face. The machine can measure facial proportions by points,
specified by the expert. However, at all stages of its work, control is carried out
the role of a specialist. The use of this kind of working methods increases the efficiency
reliability, objectivity and speed of portrait identification.
Identification by combining images of a person's skull and face on
lifetime photographs
During the identification study of skeletal human remains
the most informationally significant object is the skull. When identified
Fictional research uses several techniques and methods. Most
The most common method is to combine the image of a human skull and face.
Theoretical basis for the possibility of identifying a person by combining
images of the skull and head is that the soft tissues of the head in
in their structure, for the most part, they are closely related to the structure of the skull. This is
Well, the structure of a particular skull corresponds to the structure of the soft tissues.
Some deviations are possible, but they can and are taken into account
when conducting research.
Previously, such studies were carried out by combining photographic images
human skulls and faces, now more often, the computer method is used
overlaying the face and skull after their tele-entry into the system.
The purpose of the expert’s actions when carrying out this type of research is
complete combination of all constant points and contours (sets of to-
check) highlighted on the skull and face. The expert achieves this by post-
new skull in the same angle in which the human head is located in the background
photograph. Constant points are used to select such places on the face and skull,
the position of which can be quite unambiguously determined, for example, by
owl point, eye corner position points and many others. The method of superimposition
The images are simultaneously compared; dimensions of external elements:
their proportions: relative position: structure and other parameters. Just not-
which characteristics of the structure cannot be compared when combined
images, therefore the image combination method is complemented by comparisons
no descriptions.
If there are photographs of a person from different angles, the
of significant quality, experts almost always come to categorical
ical positive or negative identification conclusion.
37.2. Fingerprint identification of a person
Fingerprint identification of a person is one of the most effective
new identification methods. In modern criminology and forensic medicine
In fact, it is deservedly considered the most developed and reliable method.
Most of the principles of forensic identification theory in general,
and the theory of human personality identification in particular, formed on
based on the provisions of fingerprint identification. New installation methods
identity concepts that appear in science and practice try to compare
with fingerprinting for reliability and efficiency. For example, implemented in
Currently, the method of genotyposcopy is being introduced into widespread expert practice.
Chalu was even called genomic fingerprinting, emphasizing the great possibilities
ty genotyposcopic method in identifying a person’s personality by
comparison of its capabilities with a reference forensic method. Poe-
In addition, a presentation of the basics of fingerprint identification in this chapter
the textbook will be useful.
On the palmar surfaces of the hands and similar surfaces
the feet have patterns formed by ridges and grooves, called
papillary patterns (papilla - papilla, papillary - papillary). Their
the presence is due to the structure of the base (papillary) layer of the skin, which
also called the dermal layer (dermis). The outer layer of the skin is the epidermis,
reflects the structure of the base dermal layer. (Fig. 37-3)
The skin on the palmar surfaces of the hands (and on the plantar sides of the feet) behind
due to the presence of ridges and grooves, it is much thicker than on others
areas of the body. Functionally, such a skin arrangement allows for better protection
protect the underlying tissue layers from mechanical and thermal damage,
the danger of which constantly appears during hand contact
with various kinds of objects. With such an increased thickness of the skin, it is so
tile sensitivity is higher than in other areas of the skin of the human body -
Yes, this is due to the fact that the skin rolls in contact with surfaces
shift, and this deviation of the tops of the rollers is transmitted to their base,
where the corresponding receptors are located. In addition, the presence of rollers and
grooves allow you to better hold objects when grasping them with your hand.
Thus, the structure of the skin in the form of papillary ridges and grooves
increases the efficiency of performing several functions of the human hands at once.
Papillary patterns appear in the human fetus at the time of formation
skin and remain unchanged until a person’s death. Destroyed
they are after the death of a person along with the skin, which most often occurs
for a significant period of time after death. Papillary patterns of the floor
completely restored to their original form after surface treatment
skin lesions. After deep injuries, scars remain that have
individual character.
The structure of papillary patterns is strictly individual. More than a century
Our observations have proven that papillary patterns are not repeated in different
of people. And even Siamese twins, whose bodies are more or less similar
united with each other, have different papillary patterns.
These properties make it possible to effectively use papillary patterns
ry for identifying people.
Along with the fact that papillary patterns are strictly individual, they also have
common features that allow them to be classified.
For practical purposes of identifying a person, in most cases we use
papillary patterns of the terminal phalanges of the fingers are used.
When conducting identification and other studies of papillary patterns,
It is most convenient to work with their prints obtained using
using black paint and white paper. Therefore, a description of papillary patterns
produced in relation to their displays obtained on paper.
Let's consider the structure of papillary patterns. All papillary patterns are divided
into three main types: loop (frequency approximately 65%); behind-
coil (30%); arc (5%). (Fig. 37-4) In addition, groups are distinguished:
transitional types of patterns, for example, between loop and curl, between double
gov and loop; atypical patterns; patterns whose type is not determined
for any reason.
Within one type, patterns are divided into types. In the patterns there are so-called
integral points to be identified: center and delta. Arc patterns do not have deltas.
Individuality is determined by the presence in the patterns of details of the structure of the papillae
polar lines There are several types of structure of parts: beginning and ending
tion of the line; branching and merging; peephole; hook; fragment and some
other. In the literature there are different names for these construction parts.
changes in papillary lines.
When studying papillary lines under a microscope, features are identified
the structure of their edges and ends, as well as structural features and location
displays of pores, which are the external openings of the excretory ducts along the
commodity glands.
The essence of fingerprint identification research is
that the expert performs a comparative study of two mappings
papillary patterns. The origin of one of which is from a specific person
century (A) is known, but the origin of the second papillary pattern (X) is unknown
known or doubtful. Papillary patterns are first compared by
general characteristics, such as the type and type of pattern. Then the details are analyzed
structure, taking into account the presence of details in the compared displays
nias and their relative positions. If all detected details match and
In the absence of differences, the identity of the patterns is considered established.
If at least one reliably established difference is detected,
pillar patterns are recognized as non-identical (Fig. 37-5)
If we take into account only the number of matching points, then 17
enough to identify one person from the entire population
globe (calculations made by one of the founders of modern
fingerprinting). But the study takes into account not only the amount of
check, but their location and quality.
Therefore, in some cases it is possible to carry out identification using
There are only 6-7 details of the structure of the papillary pattern. If you use
microscopic features, such as the structure of the edges and ends of leaves,
ny, structure and location of pores, then the conclusion can be made based on
fewer pattern points.
In what basic situations can fingerprinting be performed?
identification?
One of the main conditions for the implementation of fingerprint identification
identification is the presence of fingerprints obtained from a known
person (from A). Currently in our country we officially have
the right to obtain and store only the fingerprints of criminals. If not
If necessary, fingerprints can also be obtained from other citizens.
The object of comparison with “known” fingerprints can be: fingerprints
fingers of an unknown person who is unwilling or unable to report
provide yourself with truthful identifying data: fingerprints of a human corpse,
whose identity has not been established; handprints from accident scenes. Footprints
hands are invisible or faintly visible prints formed by
filled with sweat-fatty substances, usually found on the surface of the skin. Next
They can also be formed by other substances. If the handprints being studied
are directly related to the crime event, then positive identification
fication allows you to solve a crime and prove the guilt of a specific person
Similar identification studies may not be carried out
only by displaying finger patterns, but also by palm prints and
feet In some warm countries, they use
Footprints are used because they are often found at crime scenes.
processions. And in the USA, for example, prints of the papillary patterns of the feet are obtained from
infants for possible future identification.
The role of forensic doctors of the Ministry of Health in the process
establishing the identity of unknown citizens through fingerprint identification
tifications are episodic. Usually they just help cook for
fingerprinting the fingers of corpses in a state of significant
body post-mortem changes. However, at present, in this regard,
The role of forensic doctors of the Ministry of Internal Affairs expanded. They sa-
independently fingerprint the corpses of unknown citizens and send these
fingerprint cards for conducting comparative research in or-
gans of internal affairs.
Based on the patterns of inheritance of papillary patterns of fate
Scientific doctors conduct a rather rare but interesting type of research -
establishing kinship. Analyzing the various characteristics of papillary
patterns of parents and child, one can come to a conclusion about the origin of this
child from these specific men and women with a fairly low probability
error.
One of the sciences included in general biology is anthropology (the science of human
century, as a species of the animal world), uses the doctrine of papillary patterns
human, called dermatoglyphics, to solve problems of establishing
the origin of different groups of the world's population, the relationship between groups and
for other similar purposes.
In medicine, dermatoglyphics positions are used to diagnose certain
of certain hereditary diseases and for their prevention.
With the introduction of modern computer methods into practical work
information processing, fingerprint identification capabilities
increased significantly. Currently, there are technical complexes for
base of large computers, which can, based on fingerprints in millions of masses,
sivah to find a specific person in a matter of minutes.
Possibilities of identification studies of other areas of human skin
Theoretically, any area of human skin is individual in its structure.
ence and therefore its imprints can be objects of positive
identification research. In criminology, there are cases when
it was possible to identify a person's identity by prints of the forehead, nose and
other parts of the head.
The most common prints found at crime scenes are lip prints. At
detection of this kind of traces through comparative analysis can be identified
identify a person or exclude him as a person who left a trace.
37.3. Genotyposcopic identification method
The first reports about the possibility of using DNA molecule analysis for
human identification was made in the mid-eighties by a scientist from
UK A.J. Jeffreys.
As is known, the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule is
tel of hereditary information.
The possibility of such research is based on individuality
structure of some sections of the DNA molecule, they were called hypervariable
(GV) in sections. The structure of these segments of molecules is not only individual
every person, but is also strictly repeated in all organs and tissues of the body
one person (Fig. 37-6)
The method for studying the GV regions of a DNA molecule is called differently: “ge-
Nominal identification", "DNA fingerprinting", "genotyposcopy".
(I look at the genotype) most accurately reflects the meaning of this kind of research
and we will use this name of the method.
Theoretically, the genotyposcopic identification method is the most
universal, since with its help, in principle, one can identify
a variety of objects of biological origin, if only in them
a small number of DNA molecules or parts thereof have been preserved.
Using highly efficient technical means, it is possible to obtain re-
a result with a probability of error less than one in several billion
dov cases. That is, to single out one single person from everything
many living on earth.
The versatility and high individuality of the results make this
the method is the most promising among all other identification methods
humans in cases of direct research of biological objects
origin.
There are several technology options for conducting research on mo-
DNA molecules for human identification purposes. One option is based on
analysis of length polymorphism of DNA restriction fragments (fragments,
obtained by cutting the molecule). It is called RFLP analysis for short.
(used for the study of liquid blood).
The technology of such research generally consists of the following
1. Isolation of DNA molecules from the material under study. (DNA molecules on-
are found in the nuclei of cells in the DNA structure.)
2. Fragmentation (separation into fragments) of DNA molecules using
enzymes - restriction enzymes (endonucleases). There are many types of rest-
rictases, which cut the DNA molecule in places unique to them, i.e.
i.e. each type of restriction enzyme only in the place where it is supposed to be
chemical nature.
After such an effect on the DNA molecule, many fragments are formed.
ments, which differ from each other in composition, length and, accordingly,
respectively, molecular weight.
3. A mixture of DNA fragments is separated by gel electrophoresis. Method
is based on the fact that under the influence of electric current fragments
DNA moves in a special medium - a gel. The lighter and smaller they are,
4. From the entire set of fragments located in different areas
electrophoretic plate, using special probes reveal
lymorphic fragments. Moreover, probes are usually labeled with radioactive isotopes.
pamy or non-radioactive tags. What allows you to get on a special
membrane a visible set of lines of different widths corresponding to the number and type
hypervariable (HV) fragments. The location of individual lines varies
it varies among different people, and their totality is individual, (Fig. 37-7)
It is advisable to carry out a parallel study of the known
the origin of the object (from A) and the unknown (from X). The resulting "paintings"
ki" distributions of GW fragments are compared with each other using
methods of mathematical analysis. Calculate the possibility of random
image matches. With a very small probability of random coincidence
falls neglect it and believe that the objects being compared are identical, and
therefore, the identity of the person from whom he descended earlier has been established
unknown object X.
The method allows you to compare the results of studies of unknown
exchangeable DNA molecules from the nuclei of blood cells, sperm and any other tissues
human body. The “picture” of the location of GW fragments does not change to
throughout a person's life, it is individual. Complete resemblance
"DNA patterns" are observed only in identical twins. With relatives
the similarity of genotypic patterns is revealed, which makes it possible to establish
Recently, it has been developed and is actively being introduced into expert practice.
tic method that allows the study of very small quantities
broken DNA molecules. The method is based on the fact that before the study
In the GV regions, existing DNA fragments are copied many times, thereby
the volume of material to be studied is increased to the required level;
nu. This method is called the amplification method (chain reaction
polymerization).
With the introduction into practice of this modification of genotyposcopy, it was eliminated
but one of the most significant obstacles on the path of practical
morbid-medical and forensic use of the method, I conclude
resulting from the limitations of the material required to carry out effective
significant research, in terms of volume and quality.
The use of the genotyposcopy method can solve many
problems arising in the detection and investigation of crimes. By
data from the genotyposcopy laboratory of the Expert Forensic Center
With its help, the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia can do the following.
1. Establish the origin of blood, sperm and some others
objects from a specific person. (Fig. 37-9)
2. Combine crimes if they were committed by the same person and
contained traces of biological origin, such as sperm.
3. Determine whether pregnancy has occurred from a person suspected of
committing rape.
4. Identify specific participants in events in cases of detection
mixed traces of biological origin. (That is, the expert, if not
necessity can say that this particular blood stain is formed
blood of several persons and indicate which ones specifically.)
5. Determine whether the parts of the corpse found dismembered belong to
same or different bodies.
6. Determine whether a particular man and woman can be pregnant
child's lamy, (Fig. 37-8)
It is possible to resolve other issues similar to those mentioned above that arise.
in solving and investigating crimes.
Based on the results of the study of DNA “fingerprints,” the following variations are possible:
antecedents of the expert's conclusions.
1. The origin of the studied object from a specific person is excluded
2. The identity of DNA molecules in the object under study and in the environment has been established.
case taken from person A. Consequently, the investigated object X occurred
on behalf of A.
When identifying the parents of a child, several options are possible for answering:
1. The origin of the child from one of the intended births is excluded.
2. The origin of the child from both intended parents is excluded.
3. The biological parents of the child are a specific man and
A positive conclusion is made by the expert if a very
low probability of random coincidence of polymorphic bands (less than
To conclude this section of the chapter, we will give several examples of the use
using the genotyposcopy method from the practice of Forensic Expertise
whom the center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia (ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation).
1. A young woman gave birth to a boy. A few days after giving birth
he died in the maternity hospital and was handed over to his parents for burial. By
six months after the burial of the baby, the parents developed
suspicion that the deceased child given to them is not their son. After
carrying out the exhumation, an examination was ordered, which was carried out
entrusted to experts from the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. The question was posed for resolution: “Is it
Is the dead boy the child of this man and woman?”
liquid blood of the intended parents and muscle tissue were presented.
tissue from the exhumed corpse of a child. The research was clear
It was established that these man and woman are the parents of the deceased child.
2. In one of the apartments of the house the corpse of the murdered citizen N was discovered. During
operational investigative activities in the apartment of suspect M. was
a knife with traces of a brownish substance similar to blood was found. Was
an examination was appointed, the production of which was entrusted to the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. Before
experts posed the question: “Does the blood detected
on a knife, from Mr. N.?" Using the genotyposcopy method, it was established that
that the genotype of the blood on the knife and the genotype of the blood of Gr-N are the same, and the possible
The frequency of occurrence of such a DNA “fingerprint” is 1 in 300 milligrams.
ardov man. It was concluded that the blood on the knife found in the apartment
the dash of suspect M. is the blood of Mr. N.
3. Gr-ki A., fifteen years old, after five weeks of pregnancy,
there was a miscarriage. According to her, five weeks before this event, she was raped
Citizen M. was silovan and the conception occurred from him. To confirm or
to refute this statement, an examination was ordered, to resolve which
Roy was asked the question: “Isn’t the pregnancy of Ms. A.
a consequence of the fact that Mr. M. had sexual intercourse with her?" Conducted
The examination was entrusted to the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, as the materials being examined
The catches are represented by: fetal tissue, blood of group A., blood of group M. Genotypos-
Copy research excluded M. as the subject of conception. During
investigation, it turned out that Ms. A. met Mr. N., genotypic
a pictorial study established that it was from him that it came
4. Fragments of skin were found in the forest. In order to establish
identification of the species and gender of the indicated fragments was intended
An examination was carried out, which was entrusted to the ECC of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. Using the genoti-
Poscopy revealed that the skin belonged to a man.
During the operational search activities, the B. family was identified, whose
where a fifteen-year-old boy disappeared. According to the time of occurrence of the specified
events, it was possible that the skin could come from the missing boy
Genotyposcopic examination of the blood of B.’s husband and wife and skin fragments
cops of an unknown man, using the amplification method (reaction
tion of chain polymerization), it was found that the unknown is
son of husband and wife B.
The genotyposcopy method is currently being actively implemented in
practice of law enforcement and this is not a tribute to fashion, but a consequence
its revolutionary potential. Using this method, it is practically possible to solve
There are law enforcement tasks that were previously unsolvable. Except
Moreover, even wider use of it in solving problems has been scientifically prepared
various tasks of identifying the identity of humans and animals based on traces
and objects of biological origin. With the advent of this method, science
and practice received a universal tool for group and individual
identification of any objects of living nature.
37.4. Laboratory analysis of odors recovered from accident scenes
The smell of a person is due to the presence in the secretions of his skin
complex of volatile chemicals. Animal olfactory bioreceptor
perceives these chemicals, information processing is carried out -
in the brain.
Olfactory capabilities of service-search dogs for operational
They have been used for investigative purposes for a long time: to track down criminals; For
detection of various types of chemicals (explosives, drugs and
etc.). Laboratory research of human odor for the purpose of its identification
fication, as an independent method, appeared relatively recently -
about 30 years ago.
The doctrine of the use of odors for the purpose of identifying a person’s personality
centuries was called forensic odology (from the Latin odor - smell, logos -
teaching). When working with scent traces, biochemical and
physiological ideas about the nature of a given object, including
ideas about the individuality of the human odor complex, with cri-
minimalistic method of working with traces.
Human secretions containing his odor remain almost forever.
all objects that have been in contact with the human body for a sufficient time
ka. Moreover, from objects that are constantly in contact with the
human damage, for example from clothing, the smell can transfer to objects,
in the pockets of these clothes. In practical work it can be used
odors found on personal items, hair,
crime weapons, seat upholstery, marks on the soil and snow, as well as
on many other objects that have been in contact with for quite a long time
human. It is interesting that traces of a person’s blood contain his individual
dual odor, which is identified with the odor of the skin surface. A
In a person’s sperm, his individual odor is not established.
A complex of substances that determine the essence and individuality of the smell, with
Over time it disappears from its location. Therefore, odor traces
Dyes are usually not detected 1224 hours after they are left.
They disappear especially quickly from well-ventilated places in dry conditions.
positive air temperature. And vice versa, at negative temperatures
They last longer in air and confined spaces.
Scent marks are invisible, so working with them requires great precision.
difficulty in complying with all the requirements of the methodology from the moment they are removed from
carrier object before research in the laboratory.
The process of detecting, recording, seizing and transporting traces to the
The general outline is as follows: the detection of odor traces is purely hypothetical,
it is simply assumed that there are substances on this carrier object,
which form the basis of human smell; odor removal is carried out
by applying absolutely
clean cotton napkin, place a thin one on top
aluminum foil and press tightly, for complete transfer of the trace it is necessary
the time required is at least 3040 minutes, the process of removing the trace is recorded by
in both video and video modes; after this, the napkins with marks are wrapped in 3-4
layer of foil or put in tightly closed glass jars, place
They cannot be placed in plastic bags. The seizure of traces is formalized in compliance with
meeting all the requirements of procedural law. Seized traces preferably in
deliver to the laboratory as soon as possible.
In the laboratory, using a specially developed method of thermal vacuum de-
sorption with subsequent condensation produces extraction and concentration
tion of volatile substances that form the basis of the smell. When processing substances
no evidence was obtained for the purpose of extracting and concentrating odor
damage to other traces of biological and non-biological origins
walking.
Removal of odor samples from a person is carried out by contact
the surface of his body with a clean cotton napkin.
Subsequently, the samples are processed in the same way as traces.
As a result of working with traces and samples, we get completely identical
carbon odor carriers, which eliminates the influence of appearance and
other properties of objects on dogs. The laboratory has a set of samples
odor removed in this way from many objects, they are used
when conducting odor analysis.
Detector dogs are trained according to a specific method to search for environments.
di dozen absolutely identical objects of an object with such a smell that
ry was given to them as a sample at the start of the search. Having discovered the smell,
The tank lets the operator know about this.
At least two people are involved in carrying out practical work.
century. One works directly with the dog, the second arranges and
replaces objects.
The actual research proceeds as follows. Situated among
several objects, a trace taken from the scene of the incident, the dog is given
sniff the sample. After which she selects one from several objects,
similar in smell to the sample, sits near it or simply stops
Yes. If there are no identical odors, the dog passes by all
objects. The study is repeated several times, with the position
the objects being examined changes, and the smell at the start also changes. Then research
The procedure is repeated using another dog as a detector. If
all these numerous experiments give the same result, i.e.
in any combination, dogs always determine the similarity of the smell in the study
blown trace and sample, then a conclusion is made about a positive identification
person by smell.
Methods for determining the acuteness of the sense of smell have been developed and applied.
tank, they are used as a preliminary test for practical
and scientific works.
The dog easily recognizes the smell given to it at the start, even in mixed environments.
sizes. That is, if a non-pure odor of one
a specific person, but a mixture of the smells of different people or the smell of a person with
some foreign substances, then she will still search and find
child is the one that was given to her at the start, not paying attention to the
early smells.
The method has been constantly used in practice over the past ten years.
years and during this time there was not a single erroneous conclusion.
The capabilities of forensic odorology are used both in operational
the sophisticated work of internal affairs bodies, and during examinations in
crime investigation.
As an example of using the method of forensic odorology, consider
Rome case study.
In the Volga car, on the morning of a summer day, the corpse of her driver was discovered.
businessman, he was lying between the rear and front seats. On the head at the crown
no-temporal region on the right there were clear signs of damage caused
with a blunt object. During the inspection of the car and the corpse, it was stated
assumption that the owner of the car was injured while driving
car, and the killer was probably located in the seat directly behind
him. At the time of inspection, there were canisters lying in this place, which were heavily
smelled like gasoline. Despite this, from the rear seat, located
after the driver, the smell was recovered.
A few days later, a person suspected of committing this crime appeared.
th crime. This person was connected with the owner of the Volga by a joint
criminal business. Secretly, an item of clothing was taken from him - worn -
the body of his smell. The study yielded a positive result.
It was concluded that the suspect was in the car of the murdered non-
long before her inspection and sat in the back seat behind the driver, just at
the one from which the fatal blow to the head was most likely dealt
deceased. Moreover, the duration of death, established from cadaveric
changes coincided with the possible time of formation of odor traces.
After the arrest of the suspect, an odorological examination was carried out.
for, the court considered its results important evidence of the defendant’s guilt.
Humans and any animals can be identified by smell. Pro-
identification studies were carried out on objects removed from frogs,
dogs, cats, tigers and other animals, which can be widely used
in biology.
Leading scientists of our country in the field of physiology, zoology, zoopsycho-
logy, specialists in chemocommunication (smell) of animals evaluate
method of odorological identification as a complete system of scientific-
grounded techniques for biosensory analysis of odor information, giving
reliable information. This method is positively assessed by the majority
criminologists.
Of course, the method of odorological identification of a person is not included in
competence of forensic doctors, but it is included in the range of techniques that
are willing to carry out identification studies of biological objects
origin, therefore its brief presentation in this chapter is advisable.
37.5. Dental identification examination
Dental examination can be of great importance in identification
person's personality. If there is sufficient information (especially
benefits of dental structure) positive identification study
can be carried out only on the dental apparatus without the involvement of any
any other research methods.
When identifying teeth, several groups are distinguished
signs that can be identified, studied, and used as a basis
identification output.
1. Presence or absence of teeth.
2. Features of the structure and location of teeth (bends, inclinations, rotations)
companies and the like), (Fig. 37-10)
3. The presence of pathological processes (caries, periodontal disease, etc.).
4. Consequences of medical intervention (fillings, dentures, etc.).
Comparing the teeth of, say, a putrefied human corpse with the description
the teeth of a living person, available in medical documents, special
alists analyze the similarities and differences in the structure of teeth according to the specified
higher groups. With complete coincidence of several character traits
and the location can be given a positive identification
water When differences are found, they must be properly assessed. Spilled
changes in the condition of the teeth may be due to changes that have already occurred
after an intravital description of the dental apparatus was made.
For example, in the medical record it is noted that the second incisor on the right is present
chii, but the corpse does not have it. The tooth could have been removed (fell out) after
how the record under study was made. In such cases, the expert must learn
explore all possible options for the development of the situation.
Identification findings, both positive and negative,
are built only on the basis of an analysis of reliable identifiable characteristics.
Signs of a structure about which there are any doubts
should be excluded from the population being assessed.
The most effective identification is by radiographs of teeth that
make them sick during their treatment. Such documents objectively reflect
the structure of the teeth, which is used for identification. X-ray
The human dental apparatus is as individual as fingerprints. IN
in some cases, for example, after complex dental treatment accompanied by
by drilling and filling, such individual
changes that identification can be made through research
just one tooth.
Identification of a person using radiographs of skeletal bones
Radiographs of skeletal bones show a large number of
features of their structure, especially if radiographs were taken regarding
injuries. The set of details of bone structure, natural and acquired in
as a result of injury, is individual and sufficient for identification
research. A comparative study is carried out in the presence of lifetime
After X-rays are taken, post-mortem ones are prepared in the laboratory (Fig.
In this type of research, the most informative are complex
bones or bones with individual characteristics. Sometimes it is enough to
examine individual sections of bone tissue to obtain identification
ny conclusion. For example, in a comparative study of bone radiographs
skull, a positive identification conclusion can be drawn based on
coincidences in the structure of the frontal sinuses, which, as a rule, have very
complex shape. Naturally, there should be no significant differences
in the structure of bones in other areas of radiographs.
37.6. The tasks of law enforcement officers to ensure
specialists with materials for conducting identification research
From the previous presentation it is quite obvious that in order to carry out
identification studies, the specialist must be provided with ma-
materials that originate from a famous person. These are photographs
x-rays, hair, medical documents, fingerprints, personal
things with traces of sweat, and similar objects. Their identity with analogues
similar objects from an unknown person allows us to conclude that
positive identification of a person's identity.
Detection and provision of such objects to specialists directly
responsibility of employees of the inquiry and investigation bodies. They not only obliga-
are obliged to do this, but are vitally interested in such objects being
discovered, seized and provided to a specialist, since the result of their
Research is very important for solving and investigating crimes.
In the situation of preparing a comparative study, there may be two options:
rianta. The first, when there is a person or several persons from whom they must
samples may be taken for comparison. For example, it is necessary to carry out genoty-
poscopic examination of semen stains in cases of rape and have-
are suspected of committing it. The second option is an object that is not
it is necessary to compare, there is, for example, the skull of the corpse of an unknown person -
ka, but there are no objects to compare with it, i.e. no assumptions about
the identity of the deceased.
In the second situation, it is necessary to carry out investigative work aimed at
to identify missing persons, presumed dead in the investigation
due to the occasion. And only then confiscate them at their place of residence, work, etc.
materials for comparative research.
If the information about the deceased person is sufficiently complete, then, using
it, you can search through the files of missing citizens,
according to records of previously convicted persons and other methods. It's usually easy
is carried out if the head of the deceased person being identified remains unchanged
not affected by any processes. If a person’s face is destroyed by trauma,
chemical influences or post-mortem changes, it is necessary first
carry out facial reconstruction, and then carry out investigative work
Methods for reconstructing human appearance
The appearance of a dead person differs significantly from the appearance
alive, there is no tone of soft tissues inherent in living things, there is no facial expression and
etc. As a result, search work using photographs of labor
may be difficult. There are even more difficulties in this regard in
cases when the face of a corpse is changed even slightly by pronounced
mortal phenomena or there is damage on it. In such cases, it is recommended
It is recommended to make hand-drawn portraits of an unknown deceased person,
in which he should look alive. It is possible to produce several
options with different facial expressions and different hairstyles.
With more deeply advanced post-mortem processes or with significantly
severe facial injuries before making a hand-drawn portrait of the deceased
For any person, it is advisable to carry out restoration of the soft tissues of the head,
this procedure is called a "deep toilet of the head of a corpse." After completing
the introduction of all procedures for the preparation of soft tissues of the head of a corpse significantly increases
the task of creating a hand-drawn portrait becomes easier.
If the soft tissues of the head are very damaged, then it is advisable
clear the skull of them and restore the external appearance of the person
The soft tissues of the head are closely related in their structure to the bone base
Skull. Knowledge of these structural patterns provides the basis for special
sheet to restore the soft tissues of the head along the bone base. Some
of the structural elements of the head are restored reliably, some
only tentatively, some of the appearance signs have no correlation at all -
tions with a bone base and is therefore reproduced by an expert in free
Several restoration methods have been developed and are used in practice.
research (reconstruction) of the face from the skull.
The first to develop and begin to use the so-called plastic
method of facial reconstruction from the skull. The essence of the method is step-by-step application
plastic mass (for example, plasticine) on the skull (or its plaster cast)
pyu) taking into account knowledge of the distribution patterns of soft tissue thickness
at various points of the head. The work ends with choosing a hairstyle (maybe
there may be several options) and applying makeup. Various types of
course photographs of the reconstructed head, which are used in
work to establish a person’s identity.
The second option for the method of restoring the appearance is to perform
hand-drawn portrait. This type of work takes less time, but requires
significant artistic skills and therefore inaccessible to many of
experts.
In order to eliminate the shortcomings of the methods mentioned above, it was developed
combined graphic method (CGM) of facial reconstruction from the skull.
The essence of the method is that, taking into account the structure of the skull, ready-made designs are selected
sketches of appearance elements. They are applied to the skull in order to correctly
th reproduction of facial proportions. Then, if necessary, the resulting
The image is completed by a specialist. The method is less labor intensive than
the first two, all work can be completed in 2-3 days, and if necessary
faster and faster. This method can be used by any specialist who has undergone
special training, artistic abilities are not required
At the initial stage of introducing the KGM method into practical work,
raised doubts about the quality of the reproduced image. However, in the present
They have now dispersed. Practice has proven that the method gives good results.
results. For example, when investigating a series of crimes committed
A.R. Chikatilo, facial reconstructions from the skulls of skeletonized corpses of me-
Tod KGM were performed 12 times, in ten cases the identity of the dead was
installed using a reconstructed exterior.
area, a skeletonized corpse was discovered, in addition to the bones preserved
Only the mummified skin of the anterior surface of the chest was removed. on it
Damage caused by a piercing weapon was identified. Research
Examination of the skeleton revealed that it was the corpse of a woman 20-30 years old. According to
turnip's appearance was restored. Some skull proportions are significant
significantly different from the norm, which made it possible to suggest that
that the deceased woman was mentally disabled.
Based on this assumption, employees of the search unit
niya sent out requests to the regions neighboring Rostov, in which they asked
can I send information about mentally handicapped women aged from
20 to 30 years of age who have disappeared from the field of view of relevant treatment
institutions in 1983. In response to such requests, hundreds of additional
documents with descriptions of women, some of them with photographs. Prosmat-
collecting materials, employee of the search department of the Criminal Investigation Department of the Internal Affairs Directorate of the Rostov Region
noted a significant external resemblance to the woman who disappeared in Volgograds-
region - Lyudmila K., born in 1959, with a reconstructed external
with the appearance of a dead citizen.
At the next stage of work, specialists, by identifying
On-line examination established that the deceased was indeed Lyudmila
K. born in 1959, lived in Volgograd. (Fig. 37-12)
During the preliminary investigation and in court it was proven that in the summer of 1983
year A.R. Chikatilo met at the railway station in Shakhty
Ms. K., suffering from mental illness. For the purpose of killing her
For sexual reasons, he deceptively lured her into the forest belt. There's a surprise there
attacked, stripped the victim, inflicted multiple injuries with a knife
tso, neck, chest and stomach. The victim died from these injuries. Chikatilo
mocked the corpse, cut off breasts, cut out genitals. Victim's clothing
He took you with him and hid him in the forest belt.
The given example clearly demonstrates the meaning and place of re-
facial structures based on the skull in search and investigative work to uncover
tia and crime investigation.
Having a substantiated version of the identity of the deceased person, employees
law enforcement agencies must collect full-fledged materials
fishing for identification research. To get this
type of materials a number of sources can be used.
It is advisable to identify and seize this type of information
with the participation of a forensic specialist.
The quantity and quality of the identified and researched information
The results of the identification study depend greatly.
FORENSIC MEDICAL RESEARCH OF DOCUMENTS
In the previous parts of the textbook, the possibilities of judicial
dicine in the study of material objects that are sources
medical and biological information. In particular, studies were described
corpses, living people and material evidence. However, important for the right
protective activities, conclusions can be obtained without difficulty
direct study of material objects, only through the analysis of information
This kind of information can be contained in a variety of documents.
data, photo and video materials, drawings, diagrams, etc. In the majority
cases, these information carriers are evidence in the case, therefore
Therefore, their forensic medical examination is carried out in the form of an examination,
it is usually called an examination based on case materials. Analysis of various kinds
documents containing special information may be subject to review
by medical doctors outside the scope of the examination, in these cases it is formalized as
research or specialist consultation.
Loading...
