Climatology and meteorologists. What fraction of sunlight is absorbed by the earth's surface Spectral composition of solar radiation

Give an example of the Russian mountains included in the Pamir-Chukchi belt?

4) Name the oldest era?

5) What era periods are: Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous?

6) In what period and in what era did the first reptiles appear?

7) In what period of the Cenozoic era did apes appear?

8) As a result of the activity of what exogenous force the following relief forms are formed: car, carling, trough, circus, moraine, ram's foreheads, eskers, kamas?

9) What is the name of a cluster of deposits of one type of mineral?

10)What is the name of the long-term weather pattern?

11)What is the name of the heat and light emitted by the sun?

12) What is the name of the process of climate change when moving away from the seas and oceans, while the amount of precipitation decreases and the amplitude of temperature fluctuations increases?

13) What is the name of the border strip separating air masses of different properties?

14) When advancing, which front produces heavy rainfall accompanied by strong winds?

15) What is the main pattern of temperature changes in summer in Russia?

16) What is the name of the amount of moisture that can evaporate from a surface under given atmospheric conditions?

17) Determine the type of climate in Russia from the description: typical for the Kaliningrad region; Is there a fairly large amount of precipitation throughout the year, and not cold, wet winters followed by hot, wet summers?

18) What direction of wind prevails in Russia?

19) What is the name of a water stream flowing in a depression-channel?

20) What is the name of the depression in the relief through which the river flows?

21) What is the name of the amount of water passing through a river bed in a certain period of time?

22) What is the temporary rise of water in a river called?

23)What is the difference in height between the source and the mouth of a river called?

24) Give an example of Russian rivers with spring floods?

25) Give an example of Russian rivers with a predominance of glacial feeding?

26) Name the rivers belonging to the Pacific Ocean?

27) Give examples of drainage and drainless lakes in Russia?

28) Name the reservoir on the Volga River?

29) What is the name of a waterlogged area of ​​the earth's surface?

30)Where are ice sheets located in Russia?

31)Where is the valley of geysers in Russia?

32)What is the name of the loose surface layer of the Earth that has fertility?

33) What type of soil is typical for the taiga zone?

34) What is the name in agriculture for a set of organizational, economic, and technical measures aimed at improving soils?

35) What are the types of vegetation in the tundra?

36) What types of animals of the steppe zone do you know?

37) Give examples of anthropogenic, industrial landscapes?

in July at the foot it is +36C? The height of the Pamirs is 6 km.

c) The pilot of the Volgograd-Moscow flight rose to a height of 2 km. What is the atmospheric air pressure at this altitude, if at the surface of the earth it was 750 mm Hg?

1) below normal;

b) 760 mmHg; 2) normal;

c) 860 mmHg; 3) above normal.

The difference between the highest and lowest air temperatures

called:

a) pressure; b) air movement; c) amplitude; d) condensation.

3. The reason for the uneven distribution of solar heat on the Earth’s surface

is:

a) distance from the sun; b) spherical;

c) different thickness of the atmospheric layer;

4. Atmospheric pressure depends on:

a) wind force; b) wind direction; c) air temperature differences;

d) relief features.

The sun is at its zenith at the equator:

The ozone layer is located in:

a) troposphere; b) stratosphere; c) mesosphere; d) exosphere; e) thermosphere.

Fill in the blank: the air shell of the earth is - _________________

8. Where is the least power of the troposphere observed:

a) at the poles; b) in temperate latitudes; c) at the equator.

Place the heating steps in the correct sequence:

a) heating the air; b) sun rays; c) heating of the earth's surface.

At what time in the summer, in clear weather, is the highest temperature observed?

air: a) at noon; b) before noon; c) afternoon.

10. Fill in the blank: when climbing mountains, atmospheric pressure..., for every

10.5 m at….mmHg.

Calculate the atmospheric pressure in Narodnaya. (Find the height of the vertices at

map, take the blood pressure at the foot of the mountains as 760 mm Hg)

The following data was recorded during the day:

max t=+2’C, min t=-8’C; Determine the amplitude and average daily temperature.

Option 2

1. At the foot of the mountain, blood pressure is 760 mm Hg. What will the pressure be at an altitude of 800 m:

a) 840 mm Hg. Art.; b) 760 mm Hg. Art.; c) 700 mm Hg. Art.; d) 680 mm Hg. Art.

2. Average monthly temperatures are calculated:

a) by the sum of average daily temperatures;

b) dividing the sum of average daily temperatures by the number of days in a month;

c) from the difference in the sum of temperatures of the previous and subsequent months.

3. Match:

pressure indicators

a) 760 mm Hg. Art.; 1) below normal;

b) 732 mm Hg. Art.; 2) normal;

c) 832 mm Hg. Art. 3) above normal.

4. The reason for the uneven distribution of sunlight over the earth's surface

is: a) distance from the Sun; b) the sphericity of the Earth;

c) a thick layer of the atmosphere.

5. Daily amplitude is:

a) the total number of temperature readings during the day;

b) the difference between the highest and lowest air temperatures in

during the day;

c) temperature variation during the day.

6. What instrument is used to measure atmospheric pressure:

a) hygrometer; b) barometer; c) rulers; d) thermometer.

7. The sun is at its zenith at the equator:

8. The layer of the atmosphere where all weather phenomena occur:

a) stratosphere; b) troposphere; c) ozone; d) mesosphere.

9. A layer of the atmosphere that does not transmit ultraviolet rays:

a) troposphere; b) ozone; c) stratosphere; d) mesosphere.

10. At what time in summer in clear weather is the lowest air temperature:

a) at midnight; b) before sunrise; c) after sunset.

11. Calculate the blood pressure of Mount Elbrus. (Find the height of the peaks on the map, the blood pressure at the bottom

Take the mountains conditionally for 760 mm Hg. Art.)

12. At an altitude of 3 km, the air temperature = - 15 ‘C, which is the air temperature at

Earth's surface:

a) + 5’C; b) +3’C; c) 0’C; d) -4’C.

Size: px

Start showing from the page:

Transcript

1 TASKS 8th grade Test round 1. The time at each moment of the day is the same at points located on the same meridian, called: A. Belt B. Maternity C. Local D. Summer 2. In what geological era did such events as the appearance of mammals and birds take place? , the appearance of the first flowering plants, the dominance of gymnosperms and reptiles: A. Archean B. Proterozoic C. Paleozoic D. Mesozoic 3. What proportion of sunlight is absorbed by the Earth’s surface: A. 10% B. 30% C. 50% D. 70% 4. Which tectonic structure is characterized by a younger age: A. Russian Platform B. West Siberian Plate B. Aldan Shield D. Folded regions of Kamchatka 5. The saltiest sea washing the shores of Russia? A. Chernoye B. Japanese C. Baltic D. Azov 6. The Northern Sea Route starts from the port: A. Arkhangelsk B. Murmansk C. St. Petersburg G. Kaliningrad 7. A scientist from Yekaterinburg (IV belt) organized a webinar for his colleagues from other regions Russia Omsk (V-zone), St. Petersburg (II-zone) and Barnaul (VI-zone) at 14:00 Moscow time. For a participant from which city the webinar will begin at 18:00 local time: A. From St. Petersburg B. From Yekaterinburg C. From Barnaul D. From Omsk 8. Indicate a marine facility not located off the coast of Russia: A. Bussol Strait B. Kerchensky strait B. Gulf of Gdansk D. Gulf of Riga 9. Which of the following cities are located on the Volga River: A. Penza, Tolyatti C. Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov B. Cheboksary, Yoshkar-Ola D. Kazan, Ulyanovsk 10. Select the answer option, in which the listed peoples belong to the same language group: A. Buryats, Kalmyks, Khakass B. Bashkirs, Chuvash, Tatars B. Chechens, Ingush, Adyghe D. Mordovians, Udmurts, Kumyks 11. What is the origin of such landforms as eskers and kamas: A. Tectonic B. Karst B. Glacial D. Aeolian 1

2 12. Reserves of this mineral natural resource in the Kaliningrad region are estimated at more than 3 billion tons, 281 deposits have been explored. Its extraction is carried out mainly in the Nesterovsky and Polessky districts of the region. Its calorific value reaches 5000 kcal, although since 1982 its use as fuel has been prohibited by law. This resource is supplied to many European countries. A. Peat B. Amber C. Gas D. Oil shale 13. During one of the speeches, the scientist geographer V.V. Dokuchaev said: “I apologize that I stopped at... for a little longer than I expected, but this is because the latter is more expensive for Russia than all oil, all coal, more expensive than gold and iron ores; it contains eternal, inexhaustible Russian wealth.” What did V.V. talk about? Dokuchaev? A. Forest B. Chernozem C. Gas D. Ocean 14. Indicate the term that denotes this definition “Large units of the geographical envelope, having a certain combination of temperature conditions and moisture regime, which are classified mainly according to the predominant type of vegetation and naturally change on the plains with north to south, and in the mountains from the foothills to the peaks”: A. Natural-economic complexes B. Geographical regions B. Natural zones D. Landscapes 15. What natural phenomenon is discussed in I. Ryabtsev’s story “The Steppe Miracle”. “For the second week now, the most searing, most merciless of July reigned in the steppe. He licked shallow rivers to the bottom and scattered animals and birds somewhere. Burnt grass crunched underfoot, crumbling into dust; The bare ground was cut by deep cracks in which snakes, lizards and spiders lay. Everywhere you look, there are two colors: ash yellow and brown. Against this gloomy background, deceptively pleasing to the eye, leafless camel thorn bushes were scattered in aquamarine strokes - the only plant that still had a glimmer of life. Sparkling under the sun, here and there the salt lies in sugar-white patches, appearing on the dead bald patches. This is a beautiful and at the same time terrible sight” A. Bora B. Fen C. Sukhovey D. Samum 16. An atmospheric vortex of huge diameter (from hundreds to several thousand kilometers) with reduced air pressure in the center. Air circulates counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere A. Tornado B. Cyclone C. Anticyclone D. Tornado 17. Indicate the answer option in which all rivers belong to one river system A. Don, Voronezh, Oka B. Volga, Kama, Svir B. Amur, Argun, Shilka G. Ob, Irtysh, Khatanga 18. What natural resource unites the following deposits: Shtokman, Medvezhye, Zapolyarnoye, Astrakhan. A. Oil B. Gas B. Coal D. Potassium salt 2

3 19. Determine which peninsulas of Russia are characterized by the following climatic features: A. The climate is very cold, sharply continental. The average temperature in January is minus º C, and in July º. Spring begins in mid-June, and in August the average daily temperature drops below zero. Precipitation is from 120 to 140 mm per year. The eastern part of the peninsula is completely covered with glacier. B. The climate is maritime, more severe in the west than in the east. Annual precipitation is from 600 to 1100 mm. The highest parts of the mountains are supported by modern glaciers. One of the striking features of the climate of the peninsula is strong winds, hurricanes and storms in all areas of the region. In the winter months, winds blow with a force of over 6 points m/sec. B. One of the “warmest” regions of the Earth’s subarctic belt. The northern part of the peninsula is warmer than the southern part, which is due to the influence of warm currents. The average temperature in winter ranges from -9ºС on the coast, to -13ºС in the center of the peninsula. The frost-free period lasts on average 120 days in a narrow coastal strip of land, shortens with distance from the seas to 60 days, and on the tops of the mountain range the temperature does not fall below 0ºC for less than 40 days a year. 1. Kamchatka Peninsula 2. Kola Peninsula 3. Taimyr Peninsula 20. Which of the following is an example of rational environmental management? A. Creation of forest shelterbelts in the steppe zone B. Draining of swamps in the upper reaches of rivers C. Conversion of thermal power plants from natural gas to coal D. Longitudinal plowing of slopes 21. While preparing an advertising brochure for a tourism company, the artist tried to depict various exotic corners of the globe. Find two artist mistakes. A. A Peruvian is leading a llama B. A Tuareg is driving a team of reindeer C. A Thai is giving tourists rides on a yak D. A Hindu is plowing a field on a buffalo 22. A stormy mud-stone stream, often appearing at the end of a glacier during heavy rainfalls or during intense snow melting, moving along the slope and carrying with it a mass of stones is: A. Landslide B. Flood C. Mudflow D. Moraine 23. When did the continent of Pangea split? A. 10 million years ago B. 50 million years ago C. 250 million years ago D. 500 million years ago 24. In 1831, the English polar explorer John Ross made a discovery in the Canadian Arctic archipelago, and 10 years later his nephew James Ross reached its antipode in Antarctica. What discovery are we talking about? A. North magnetic pole B. Arctic circle C. South magnetic pole D. North geographic plus 3

4 25. Match: the top of the mountain - country 1. Toubkal A. Andy a. Russia 2. Aconcagua B. Atlas b. USA 3. Elbrus V. Cordillera c. Argentina 4. McKinley G. Caucasus Morocco 26. Monsoon rains often cause floods on the rivers: A. Ob, Indigirka B. Rhine, Vistula C. Danube, Yenisei G. Yangtze, Amur 27. Which country is located on different continents? A. Kazakhstan B. Egypt B. Türkiye; G. Russia 28. Establish the correspondence of the proposed concepts to the various spheres of the Earth 1. Black smokers A. Lithosphere 2. Halo B. Hydrosphere 3. El Niño C. Biosphere 4. Nekton D. Atmosphere 29. Select a lake with minimal salinity. A. Bodenskoe B. Aralskoe C. Caspian D. Balkhash 30. Which instruments are not meteorological: A. Barograph D. Echo sounder B. Hygrometer D. Curvimeter C. Heliograph E. Anemometer G. Nefoscope ANSWER FORM Answer Answer Answer Maximum points 40.4

5 8th grade Analytical round Task 1. Use a topographic map to complete the task. 1) Determine the scale of the map if the distance from point A to point B is 900 m. Write the answer in the form of a numerical and named scale 2) Determine the azimuth and direction in which to go from the school to the well. How far do you need to walk? 3) Determine the amplitude of absolute heights in this area 4) In what direction does the river flow? Squirrel? 5) Evaluate which of the sites indicated on the map by numbers 1 and 2 is best to choose for the construction of a wind power plant intended for emergency power supply to a school in the village of Verkhneye. Give at least two reasons. Maximum points 13.5

6 Task 2. Based on the proposed fragments of satellite images, determine the origin of the lake basins. Give examples of the names of lakes or areas of their distribution. Write the answer in the table Number of satellite image Origin of the lake basin Maximum number of points 10. Example of a lake or area of ​​distribution Task 3. Match the definitions to geographical phenomena and name the continents (or parts of the world) on which these phenomena are observed. A. Pororoka B. Mistral C. Kum D. Scrab D. Atoll 1. Thickets of low-growing evergreen xerophytic shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. 2. A ring-shaped coral island in the form of a narrow ridge surrounding a shallow lagoon. 3. Tidal wave moving from the mouth upstream of the river 4. Sandy desert 5. Cold northwest wind blowing on the southern coast of the country, called the Côte d'Azur. Write your answers in the table. Phenomenon Definition number Continent or part of the world 6

7 A B C D E Maximum points 10. Problem 4. There are cities on earth where people do not need fur coats, fur hats and gloves in January. From the list, select those cities whose residents do not need winter clothing in January. Why are the residents of each of the cities you chose so lucky? Luanda, Managua, Cairo, Stockholm, Bucharest Answer: Maximum score 6. Problem 5. Finnish guys from a small village located near the Arctic Circle wanted to correspond with schoolchildren from other countries living on the same parallel with them. They sent letters to Russia, Canada, Sweden. Which countries did the guys forget to write to? What types of transport can a letter be delivered there? Answer: Maximum score 6. Task 6. Fill in the blanks in the geographical description of the Nizhny Novgorod region. The Nizhny Novgorod region is located in central Russia, on (1) a plain, in natural zones (2), (3), (4). The topography of the region includes craters, caves, and lakes (5) of origin. The region lies within the (6) climate zone. The main waterways are four rivers (7, 8, 9, 10) belonging to the sea basin (11). In the north of the region, (12) soils are zonal, and in the southeast (13) soils are common. The most ancient city in the Nizhny Novgorod region (14) stands on the left bank of the Volga and is famous for its folk crafts. And in the city of Semenov, 300-year-old traditions of folk art continue (15).. Maximum number of points 15. Answer:

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LECTURE 2.

SOLAR RADIATION.

Plan:

1. The importance of solar radiation for life on Earth.

2. Types of solar radiation.

3. Spectral composition of solar radiation.

4. Absorption and dispersion of radiation.

5.PAR (photosynthetically active radiation).

6. Radiation balance.

1. The main source of energy on Earth for all living things (plants, animals and humans) is the energy of the sun.

The Sun is a gas ball with a radius of 695,300 km. The radius of the Sun is 109 times greater than the radius of the Earth (equatorial 6378.2 km, polar 6356.8 km). The sun is composed primarily of hydrogen (64%) and helium (32%). The rest account for only 4% of its mass.

Solar energy is the main condition for the existence of the biosphere and one of the main climate-forming factors. Due to the energy of the Sun, air masses in the atmosphere continuously move, which ensures the constancy of the gas composition of the atmosphere. Under the influence of solar radiation, a huge amount of water evaporates from the surface of reservoirs, soil, and plants. Water vapor carried by the wind from the oceans and seas to the continents is the main source of precipitation for land.

Solar energy is an indispensable condition for the existence of green plants, which convert solar energy into high-energy organic substances through the process of photosynthesis.

The growth and development of plants is a process of assimilation and processing of solar energy, therefore agricultural production is possible only if solar energy reaches the surface of the Earth. A Russian scientist wrote: “Give the best cook as much fresh air, sunlight, a whole river of clean water as he wants, ask him to prepare sugar, starch, fats and grains from all this, and he will decide that you are laughing at him. But what seems absolutely fantastic to a person occurs unhindered in the green leaves of plants under the influence of the energy of the Sun.” It is estimated that 1 sq. A meter of leaves produces a gram of sugar per hour. Due to the fact that the Earth is surrounded by a continuous shell of the atmosphere, the sun's rays, before reaching the surface of the earth, pass through the entire thickness of the atmosphere, which partially reflects them and partially scatters them, i.e., changes the quantity and quality of sunlight arriving at the surface of the earth. Living organisms react sensitively to changes in the intensity of illumination created by solar radiation. Due to different reactions to light intensity, all forms of vegetation are divided into light-loving and shade-tolerant. Insufficient illumination in crops causes, for example, poor differentiation of straw tissues of grain crops. As a result, the strength and elasticity of tissues decrease, which often leads to lodging of crops. In dense corn crops, due to low solar radiation, the formation of cobs on plants is weakened.

Solar radiation affects the chemical composition of agricultural products. For example, the sugar content of beets and fruits, the protein content in wheat grains directly depend on the number of sunny days. The amount of oil in sunflower and flax seeds also increases with increasing solar radiation.

Illumination of the above-ground parts of plants significantly affects the absorption of nutrients by roots. In low light conditions, the transfer of assimilates to the roots slows down, and as a result, the biosynthetic processes occurring in plant cells are inhibited.

Illumination also affects the appearance, spread and development of plant diseases. The infection period consists of two phases that differ in their reaction to the light factor. The first of them - the actual germination of spores and the penetration of the infectious principle into the tissues of the affected culture - in most cases does not depend on the presence and intensity of light. The second - after germination of the spores - is most active under increased illumination.

The positive effect of light also affects the rate of development of the pathogen in the host plant. This is especially evident in rust fungi. The more light, the shorter the incubation period for linear rust of wheat, yellow rust of barley, rust of flax and beans, etc. And this increases the number of generations of the fungus and increases the intensity of the damage. Fertility increases in this pathogen under intense lighting conditions

Some diseases develop most actively in insufficient lighting, which causes weakening of plants and a decrease in their resistance to diseases (pathogens of various types of rot, especially vegetable crops).

Light duration and plants. The rhythm of solar radiation (alternation of light and dark parts of the day) is the most stable environmental factor that repeats from year to year. As a result of many years of research, physiologists have established the dependence of the transition of plants to generative development on a certain ratio of the length of day and night. In this regard, crops can be classified into groups according to their photoperiodic reaction: short day the development of which is delayed when the day length is more than 10 hours. A short day promotes flower initiation, while a long day prevents this. Such crops include soybeans, rice, millet, sorghum, corn, etc.;

long day until 12-13 o'clock, requiring prolonged lighting for their development. Their development accelerates when the day length is about 20 hours. These crops include rye, oats, wheat, flax, peas, spinach, clover, etc.;

day length neutral, the development of which does not depend on the length of the day, for example, tomato, buckwheat, legumes, rhubarb.

It has been established that for plants to begin flowering, a predominance of a certain spectral composition in the radiant flux is necessary. Short-day plants develop faster when the maximum radiation falls on blue-violet rays, and long-day plants - on red ones. The duration of the daylight hours (astronomical day length) depends on the time of year and latitude. At the equator, the length of the day throughout the year is 12 hours ± 30 minutes. As you move from the equator to the poles after the spring equinox (21.03), the length of the day increases to the north and decreases to the south. After the autumnal equinox (September 23), the distribution of day length is reversed. In the Northern Hemisphere, June 22 is the longest day, the duration of which is 24 hours north of the Arctic Circle. The shortest day in the Northern Hemisphere is December 22, and beyond the Arctic Circle in the winter months the Sun does not rise above the horizon at all. In middle latitudes, for example in Moscow, the length of the day varies throughout the year from 7 to 17.5 hours.

2. Types of solar radiation.

Solar radiation consists of three components: direct solar radiation, diffuse and total.

DIRECT SOLAR RADIATIONS – radiation coming from the Sun into the atmosphere and then onto the earth's surface in the form of a beam of parallel rays. Its intensity is measured in calories per cm2 per minute. It depends on the height of the sun and the state of the atmosphere (cloudiness, dust, water vapor). The annual amount of direct solar radiation on the horizontal surface of the Stavropol Territory is 65-76 kcal/cm2/min. At sea level, with a high position of the Sun (summer, noon) and good transparency, direct solar radiation is 1.5 kcal/cm2/min. This is the short wavelength part of the spectrum. When the flow of direct solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it weakens due to the absorption (about 15%) and dissipation (about 25%) of energy by gases, aerosols, and clouds.

The flow of direct solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface is called insolation S= S sin ho– vertical component of direct solar radiation.

S – the amount of heat received by a surface perpendicular to the beam ,

ho – the height of the Sun, i.e. the angle formed by a solar ray with a horizontal surface .

At the boundary of the atmosphere, the intensity of solar radiation isSo= 1,98 kcal/cm2/min. – according to the international agreement of 1958 And it's called the solar constant. This is how it would look at the surface if the atmosphere were absolutely transparent.

Rice. 2.1. Path of a solar ray in the atmosphere at different heights of the Sun

SCATTERED RADIATIOND – As a result of scattering by the atmosphere, part of the solar radiation goes back into space, but a significant part of it arrives on Earth in the form of scattered radiation. Maximum scattered radiation + 1 kcal/cm2/min. It is observed when the sky is clear and there are high clouds. Under cloudy skies, the spectrum of scattered radiation is similar to that of the sun. This is the short wavelength part of the spectrum. Wavelength 0.17-4 microns.

TOTAL RADIATIONQ- consists of diffuse and direct radiation onto a horizontal surface. Q= S+ D.

The ratio between direct and diffuse radiation in the composition of total radiation depends on the height of the Sun, cloudiness and atmospheric pollution, and the height of the surface above sea level. As the height of the Sun increases, the proportion of scattered radiation in a cloudless sky decreases. The more transparent the atmosphere and the higher the Sun, the lower the proportion of scattered radiation. With continuous dense clouds, the total radiation consists entirely of scattered radiation. In winter, due to the reflection of radiation from the snow cover and its secondary scattering in the atmosphere, the share of scattered radiation in the total radiation increases noticeably.

The light and heat received by plants from the Sun are the result of the total solar radiation. Therefore, data on the amounts of radiation received by the surface per day, month, growing season, year are of great importance for agriculture.

Reflected solar radiation. Albedo. The total radiation that reaches the earth's surface, partially reflected from it, creates reflected solar radiation (RK), directed from the earth's surface into the atmosphere. The value of reflected radiation largely depends on the properties and condition of the reflecting surface: color, roughness, humidity, etc. The reflectivity of any surface can be characterized by the value of its albedo (Ak), which is understood as the ratio of reflected solar radiation to total. Albedo is usually expressed as a percentage:

Observations show that the albedo of various surfaces varies within relatively narrow limits (10...30%), with the exception of snow and water.

Albedo depends on soil moisture, with an increase in which it decreases, which is important in the process of changing the thermal regime of irrigated fields. Due to a decrease in albedo when the soil is moistened, the absorbed radiation increases. The albedo of various surfaces has a well-defined daily and annual variation, due to the dependence of the albedo on the height of the Sun. The lowest albedo value is observed around midday hours, and throughout the year - in the summer.

Earth's own radiation and counter radiation from the atmosphere. Effective radiation. The Earth's surface as a physical body having a temperature above absolute zero (-273 ° C) is a source of radiation, which is called the Earth's own radiation (E3). It is directed into the atmosphere and is almost completely absorbed by water vapor, water droplets and carbon dioxide contained in the air. The Earth's radiation depends on its surface temperature.

The atmosphere, absorbing a small amount of solar radiation and almost all the energy emitted by the earth's surface, heats up and, in turn, also emits energy. About 30% of atmospheric radiation goes into outer space, and about 70% comes to the surface of the Earth and is called counter atmospheric radiation (Ea).

The amount of energy emitted by the atmosphere is directly proportional to its temperature, carbon dioxide, ozone and cloudiness.

The Earth's surface absorbs this counter radiation almost entirely (90...99%). Thus, it is an important source of heat for the earth's surface in addition to absorbed solar radiation. This influence of the atmosphere on the thermal regime of the Earth is called the greenhouse or greenhouse effect due to the external analogy with the effect of glass in greenhouses and greenhouses. Glass transmits the sun's rays well, heating the soil and plants, but blocks the thermal radiation of the heated soil and plants.

The difference between the Earth's surface's own radiation and the counter-radiation of the atmosphere is called effective radiation: Eeff.

Eef= E3-EA

On clear and partly cloudy nights, the effective radiation is much greater than on cloudy nights, and therefore the night cooling of the earth's surface is greater. During the day, it is covered by the absorbed total radiation, as a result of which the surface temperature rises. At the same time, effective radiation also increases. The earth's surface in mid-latitudes loses 70...140 W/m2 due to effective radiation, which is approximately half the amount of heat it receives from the absorption of solar radiation.

3. Spectral composition of radiation.

The sun, as a source of radiation, has a variety of emitted waves. Radiant energy fluxes according to wavelength are conventionally divided into shortwave (X < 4 мкм) и длинноволновую (А. >4 µm) radiation. The spectrum of solar radiation at the boundary of the earth's atmosphere practically lies between wavelengths of 0.17 and 4 microns, and that of terrestrial and atmospheric radiation - from 4 to 120 microns. Consequently, the fluxes of solar radiation (S, D, RK) belong to short-wave radiation, and the radiation of the Earth (£3) and the atmosphere (Ea) belongs to long-wave radiation.

The spectrum of solar radiation can be divided into three qualitatively different parts: ultraviolet (Y< 0,40 мкм), ви­димую (0,40 мкм < Y < 0.75 µm) and infrared (0.76 µm < Y < 4 µm). Before the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation spectrum lies X-ray radiation, and beyond the infrared part lies the radio emission of the Sun. At the upper boundary of the atmosphere, the ultraviolet part of the spectrum accounts for about 7% of the solar radiation energy, 46% for the visible and 47% for the infrared.

The radiation emitted by the Earth and atmosphere is called far infrared radiation.

The biological effect of different types of radiation on plants is different. Ultraviolet radiation slows down growth processes, but accelerates the passage of stages of formation of reproductive organs in plants.

Meaning of infrared radiation, which is actively absorbed by water from the leaves and stems of plants, is its thermal effect, which significantly affects the growth and development of plants.

Far infrared radiation produces only a thermal effect on plants. Its influence on the growth and development of plants is insignificant.

Visible part of the solar spectrum, firstly, creates illumination. Secondly, the so-called physiological radiation (A, = 0.35...0.75 μm), which is absorbed by leaf pigments, almost coincides with the region of visible radiation (partially capturing the region of ultraviolet radiation). Its energy has an important regulatory and energetic significance in plant life. Within this part of the spectrum, a region of photosynthetically active radiation is distinguished.

4. Absorption and dispersion of radiation in the atmosphere.

As solar radiation passes through the earth's atmosphere, it is attenuated due to absorption and scattering by atmospheric gases and aerosols. At the same time, its spectral composition also changes. With different heights of the sun and different heights of the observation point above the earth's surface, the length of the path traveled by a solar ray in the atmosphere is not the same. As the altitude decreases, the ultraviolet part of the radiation decreases especially strongly, the visible part decreases somewhat less, and the infrared part decreases only slightly.

The dispersion of radiation in the atmosphere occurs mainly as a result of continuous fluctuations (fluctuations) in air density at each point in the atmosphere, caused by the formation and destruction of certain “clumps” (clumps) of atmospheric gas molecules. Solar radiation is also scattered by aerosol particles. The scattering intensity is characterized by the scattering coefficient.

K= add formula.

The intensity of scattering depends on the number of scattering particles per unit volume, on their size and nature, as well as on the wavelengths of the scattered radiation itself.

The shorter the wavelength, the more strongly the rays are scattered. For example, violet rays are scattered 14 times more strongly than red ones, which explains the blue color of the sky. As noted above (see Section 2.2), direct solar radiation, passing through the atmosphere, is partially scattered. In clean and dry air, the intensity of the molecular scattering coefficient obeys Rayleigh's law:

k= c/Y4 ,

where C is a coefficient depending on the number of gas molecules per unit volume; X is the length of the scattered wave.

Since the far wavelengths of red light are almost twice the wavelength of violet light, the former are scattered by air molecules 14 times less than the latter. Since the initial energy (before scattering) of violet rays is less than that of blue and cyan ones, the maximum energy in scattered light (scattered solar radiation) shifts to blue-blue rays, which determines the blue color of the sky. Thus, scattered radiation is richer in photosynthetically active rays than direct radiation.

In air containing impurities (small water droplets, ice crystals, dust particles, etc.), scattering is the same for all areas of visible radiation. Therefore, the sky takes on a whitish tint (haze appears). Cloud elements (large droplets and crystals) do not scatter the sun's rays at all, but diffusely reflect them. As a result, clouds illuminated by the Sun appear white.

5. PAR (photosynthetically active radiation)

Photosynthetically active radiation. In the process of photosynthesis, not the entire spectrum of solar radiation is used, but only its

part located in the wavelength range 0.38...0.71 µm - photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).

It is known that visible radiation, perceived by the human eye as white, consists of colored rays: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

The absorption of solar radiation energy by plant leaves is selective. The leaves most intensively absorb blue-violet (X = 0.48...0.40 µm) and orange-red (X = 0.68 µm) rays, less - yellow-green (A. = 0.58... 0.50 µm) and far red (A. > 0.69 µm) rays.

At the earth's surface, the maximum energy in the spectrum of direct solar radiation, when the Sun is high, falls in the region of yellow-green rays (the solar disk is yellow). When the Sun is located near the horizon, the far red rays have maximum energy (the solar disk is red). Therefore, the energy of direct sunlight contributes little to the process of photosynthesis.

Since PAR is one of the most important factors in the productivity of agricultural plants, information on the amount of incoming PAR, taking into account its distribution over the territory and in time are of great practical importance.

The intensity of the phased array can be measured, but this requires special filters that transmit only waves in the range of 0.38...0.71 microns. Such devices exist, but they are not used in the network of actinometric stations; they measure the intensity of the integral spectrum of solar radiation. The PAR value can be calculated from data on the arrival of direct, diffuse or total radiation using the coefficients proposed by X. G. Tooming and:

Qfar = 0.43 S" +0.57 D);

maps of the distribution of monthly and annual Fara amounts on the territory of Russia were compiled.

To characterize the degree of use of PAR by crops, the PAR useful use coefficient is used:

KPIfar= (amountQ/ headlights/amountQ/ headlights) 100%,

Where sumQ/ headlights- the amount of PAR spent on photosynthesis during the growing season of plants; sumQ/ headlights- the amount of PAR received for crops during this period;

Crops according to their average KPIFAr values ​​are divided into groups (by): usually observed - 0.5...1.5%; good - 1.5...3.0; record - 3.5...5.0; theoretically possible - 6.0...8.0%.

6. RADIATION BALANCE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE

The difference between the incoming and outgoing fluxes of radiant energy is called the radiation balance of the earth's surface (B).

The incoming part of the radiation balance of the earth's surface during the day consists of direct solar and scattered radiation, as well as atmospheric radiation. The expenditure part of the balance is the radiation of the earth's surface and reflected solar radiation:

B= S / + D+ Ea-E3-Rk

The equation can be written in another form: B = Q- RK - Eph.

For night time, the radiation balance equation has the following form:

B = Ea - E3, or B = -Eeff.

If the radiation inflow is greater than the outflow, then the radiation balance is positive and the active surface* heats up. When the balance is negative, it cools. In summer, the radiation balance is positive during the day and negative at night. The zero crossing occurs in the morning approximately 1 hour after sunrise, and in the evening 1...2 hours before sunset.

The annual radiation balance in areas where stable snow cover is established has negative values ​​in the cold season and positive values ​​in the warm season.

The radiation balance of the earth's surface significantly affects the distribution of temperature in the soil and the surface layer of the atmosphere, as well as the processes of evaporation and snowmelt, the formation of fogs and frosts, changes in the properties of air masses (their transformation).

Knowledge of the radiation regime of agricultural land makes it possible to calculate the amount of radiation absorbed by crops and soil depending on the height of the Sun, the structure of the crop, and the phase of plant development. Data on the regime are also necessary for assessing various methods of regulating temperature, soil moisture, evaporation, on which the growth and development of plants, crop formation, its quantity and quality depend.

Effective agronomic techniques for influencing the radiation and, consequently, the thermal regime of the active surface are mulching (covering the soil with a thin layer of peat chips, rotted manure, sawdust, etc.), covering the soil with plastic film, and irrigation. All this changes the reflectivity and absorption capacity of the active surface.

* Active surface - the surface of soil, water or vegetation, which directly absorbs solar and atmospheric radiation and releases radiation into the atmosphere, thereby regulating the thermal regime of adjacent layers of air and underlying layers of soil, water, vegetation.

Radiant energy from the Sun is practically the only source of heat for the Earth's surface and its atmosphere. The radiation coming from the stars and the Moon is 30?10 6 times less than solar radiation. The heat flow from the depths of the Earth to the surface is 5000 times less than the heat received from the Sun.

Some of the solar radiation is visible light. Thus, the Sun is for the Earth a source of not only heat, but also light, which is important for life on our planet.

The radiant energy of the Sun is converted into heat partly in the atmosphere itself, but mainly on the earth's surface, where it goes to heat the upper layers of soil and water, and from them the air. The heated earth's surface and heated atmosphere in turn emit invisible infrared radiation. By releasing radiation into outer space, the earth's surface and atmosphere cool.

Experience shows that the average annual temperatures of the earth's surface and atmosphere anywhere on Earth change little from year to year. If we consider the temperature conditions on Earth over long periods of time, we can accept the hypothesis that the Earth is in thermal equilibrium: the arrival of heat from the Sun is balanced by its loss into outer space. But since the Earth (with its atmosphere) receives heat by absorbing solar radiation and loses heat through its own radiation, the hypothesis of thermal equilibrium simultaneously means that the Earth is also in radiative equilibrium: the influx of short-wave radiation to it is balanced by the release of long-wave radiation into space .

Direct solar radiation

Radiation coming to the earth's surface directly from the disk of the Sun is called direct solar radiation. Solar radiation spreads from the Sun in all directions. But the distance from the Earth to the Sun is so great that direct radiation falls on any surface on Earth in the form of a beam of parallel rays, emanating as if from infinity. Even the entire globe as a whole is so small in comparison with the distance to the Sun that all solar radiation falling on it can be considered a beam of parallel rays without noticeable error.

It is easy to understand that the maximum amount of radiation possible under given conditions is received by a unit of area located perpendicular to the sun's rays. There will be less radiant energy per unit horizontal area. The basic equation for calculating direct solar radiation is based on the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, or more precisely, on the altitude of the Sun ( h): S" = S sin h; Where S"– solar radiation incident on a horizontal surface, S– direct solar radiation with parallel rays.

The flow of direct solar radiation onto a horizontal surface is called insolation.

Changes in solar radiation in the atmosphere and on the earth's surface

About 30% of direct solar radiation falling on Earth is reflected back into outer space. The remaining 70% goes into the atmosphere. Passing through the atmosphere, solar radiation is partially scattered by atmospheric gases and aerosols and turns into a special form of scattered radiation. Partially direct solar radiation is absorbed by atmospheric gases and impurities and turns into heat, i.e. goes to warm the atmosphere.

Undispersed and unabsorbed in the atmosphere, direct solar radiation reaches the earth's surface. A small fraction of it is reflected from it, and most of the radiation is absorbed by the earth's surface, as a result of which the earth's surface warms up. Part of the scattered radiation also reaches the earth's surface, is partly reflected from it and partly is absorbed by it. The other part of the scattered radiation goes up into interplanetary space.

As a result of the absorption and scattering of radiation in the atmosphere, the direct radiation that reaches the earth's surface differs from that which arrived at the boundary of the atmosphere. The flux of solar radiation decreases, and its spectral composition changes, since rays of different wavelengths are absorbed and scattered in the atmosphere in different ways.

At best, i.e. at the highest position of the Sun and with sufficient purity of the air, a direct radiation flux of about 1.05 kW/m 2 can be observed on the Earth’s surface. In the mountains at altitudes of 4–5 km, radiation fluxes of up to 1.2 kW/m2 or more were observed. As the Sun approaches the horizon and the thickness of the air traversed by the sun's rays increases, the flow of direct radiation decreases more and more.

About 23% of direct solar radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere. Moreover, this absorption is selective: different gases absorb radiation in different parts of the spectrum and to varying degrees.

Nitrogen absorbs radiation only at very short wavelengths in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. The energy of solar radiation in this part of the spectrum is completely negligible, so absorption by nitrogen has practically no effect on the flux of solar radiation. To a slightly greater extent, but still very little, oxygen absorbs solar radiation - in two narrow regions of the visible part of the spectrum and in its ultraviolet part.

Ozone is a stronger absorber of solar radiation. It absorbs ultraviolet and visible solar radiation. Despite the fact that its content in the air is very small, it absorbs ultraviolet radiation in the upper layers of the atmosphere so strongly that waves shorter than 0.29 microns are not observed at all in the solar spectrum at the earth's surface. The total absorption of solar radiation by ozone reaches 3% of direct solar radiation.

Carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) strongly absorbs radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum, but its content in the atmosphere is still small, so its absorption of direct solar radiation is generally low. Of the gases, the main absorber of radiation in the atmosphere is water vapor, concentrated in the troposphere and especially in its lower part. From the total flux of solar radiation, water vapor absorbs radiation in the wavelength ranges located in the visible and near-infrared regions of the spectrum. Clouds and atmospheric impurities also absorb solar radiation, i.e. aerosol particles suspended in the atmosphere. Overall, water vapor absorption and aerosol absorption account for about 15%, and 5% is absorbed by clouds.

In each individual place, absorption changes over time depending both on the variable content of absorbing substances in the air, mainly water vapor, clouds and dust, and on the height of the Sun above the horizon, i.e. on the thickness of the air layer traversed by the rays on their way to the Earth.

Direct solar radiation on its way through the atmosphere is attenuated not only by absorption, but also by scattering, and is attenuated more significantly. Scattering is a fundamental physical phenomenon in the interaction of light with matter. It can occur at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, depending on the ratio of the size of the scattering particles to the wavelength of the incident radiation. During scattering, a particle located in the path of propagation of an electromagnetic wave continuously “extracts” energy from the incident wave and re-radiates it in all directions. Thus, the particle can be considered as a point source of scattered energy. Scattering called the transformation of part of the direct solar radiation, which before scattering propagates in the form of parallel rays in a certain direction, into radiation traveling in all directions. Scattering occurs in optically inhomogeneous atmospheric air containing the smallest particles of liquid and solid impurities - drops, crystals, tiny aerosols, i.e. in an environment where the refractive index varies from point to point. But clean air, free of impurities, is also an optically inhomogeneous medium, since in it, due to the thermal movement of molecules, condensations and rarefactions, and density fluctuations constantly arise. When encountering molecules and impurities in the atmosphere, the sun's rays lose their linear direction of propagation and are scattered. Radiation spreads from scattering particles in such a way as if they were emitters themselves.

According to the laws of scattering, in particular, according to Rayleigh's law, the spectral composition of scattered radiation differs from the spectral composition of direct radiation. Rayleigh's law states that the scattering of rays is inversely proportional to the 4th power of wavelength:

S ? = 32? 3 (m-1) / 3n? 4

Where S? – coefficient dispersion; m– refractive index in gas; n– number of molecules per unit volume; ? – wavelength.

About 26% of the energy of the total flux of solar radiation is converted into scattered radiation in the atmosphere. About 2/3 of the scattered radiation then reaches the earth's surface. But this will be a special type of radiation, significantly different from direct radiation. Firstly, scattered radiation comes to the earth's surface not from the solar disk, but from the entire vault of heaven. Therefore, it is necessary to measure its flow onto a horizontal surface. It is also measured in W/m2 (or kW/m2).

Secondly, scattered radiation differs from direct radiation in spectral composition, since rays of different wavelengths are scattered to different degrees. In the spectrum of scattered radiation, the ratio of energy of different wavelengths compared to the spectrum of direct radiation is changed in favor of shorter wavelength rays. The smaller the size of the scattering particles, the more strongly short-wave rays are scattered in comparison with long-wave rays.

Phenomena associated with radiation scattering

The scattering of radiation is associated with such phenomena as the blue color of the sky, dusk and dawn, as well as visibility. The blue color of the sky is the color of the air itself, due to the scattering of the sun's rays in it. Air is transparent in a thin layer, just as water is transparent in a thin layer. But in a thick thickness of the atmosphere, the air has a blue color, just as water already in a relatively small thickness (several meters) has a greenish color. So how does molecular light scattering occur inversely? 4, then in the spectrum of scattered light sent by the vault of heaven, the maximum energy is shifted to blue. With height, as air density decreases, i.e. the number of scattering particles, the color of the sky becomes darker and turns into deep blue, and in the stratosphere - into black-violet. The more impurities in the air that are larger in size than air molecules, the greater the proportion of long-wave rays in the spectrum of solar radiation and the more whitish the color of the sky becomes. When the diameter of particles of fog, clouds and aerosols becomes more than 1–2 microns, then rays of all wavelengths are no longer scattered, but are equally diffusely reflected; therefore, distant objects in fog and dusty darkness are no longer covered with a blue, but with a white or gray curtain. That is why clouds on which sunlight (i.e. white) light falls appear white.

The scattering of solar radiation in the atmosphere is of great practical importance, as it creates diffused light during the daytime. In the absence of an atmosphere on Earth, there would be light only where direct sunlight or solar rays reflected by the earth's surface and objects on it would fall. Due to diffused light, the entire atmosphere during the day serves as a source of illumination: during the day it is also light where the sun’s rays do not directly fall, and even when the sun is hidden by clouds.

After sunset in the evening, darkness does not come immediately. The sky, especially in that part of the horizon where the Sun has set, remains bright and sends gradually decreasing scattered radiation to the earth's surface. Similarly, in the morning, even before sunrise, the sky brightens most in the direction of sunrise and sends diffused light to the earth. This phenomenon of incomplete darkness is called twilight - evening and morning. The reason for this is the illumination of the high layers of the atmosphere by the Sun below the horizon and the scattering of sunlight by them.

The so-called astronomical twilight continues in the evening until the Sun sets below the horizon at 18 o; by this point it is so dark that the faintest stars are visible. Astronomical morning twilight begins when the sun has the same position below the horizon. The first part of evening astronomical twilight or the last part of morning twilight, when the sun is below the horizon at least 8°, is called civil twilight. The duration of astronomical twilight varies depending on latitude and time of year. In mid-latitudes it is from 1.5 to 2 hours, in the tropics less, at the equator a little longer than one hour.

In high latitudes in summer, the sun may not fall below the horizon at all or may sink very shallowly. If the sun drops below the horizon by less than 18 degrees, then complete darkness does not occur at all and the evening twilight merges with the morning one. This phenomenon is called white nights.

Twilight is accompanied by beautiful, sometimes very spectacular changes in the color of the sky towards the Sun. These changes begin before sunset and continue after sunrise. They have a fairly natural character and are called dawn. The characteristic colors of dawn are purple and yellow. But the intensity and variety of color shades of dawn vary widely depending on the content of aerosol impurities in the air. The tones of illumination of clouds at dusk are also varied.

In the part of the sky opposite the sun, a counter-dawn is observed, also with a change in color tones, with a predominance of purple and purple-violet. After sunset, the shadow of the Earth appears in this part of the sky: a grayish-blue segment growing in height and to the sides. The phenomena of dawn are explained by the scattering of light by the smallest particles of atmospheric aerosols and the diffraction of light by larger particles.

Distant objects are less visible than close ones, and not only because their apparent size decreases. Even very large objects at a certain distance from the observer become poorly visible due to the turbidity of the atmosphere through which they are visible. This haze is caused by light scattering in the atmosphere. It is clear that it increases with increasing aerosol impurities in the air.

For many practical purposes, it is very important to know at what distance the outlines of objects behind the air curtain cease to be distinguishable. The distance at which the outlines of objects cease to be distinguishable in the atmosphere is called visibility range, or simply visibility. The visibility range is most often determined by eye using certain, pre-selected objects (dark against the sky), the distance to which is known. There are also a number of photometric instruments for determining visibility.

In very clean air, for example of arctic origin, the visibility range can reach hundreds of kilometers, since the attenuation of light from objects in such air occurs due to scattering mainly by air molecules. In air containing a lot of dust or condensation products, the visibility range can be reduced to several kilometers or even meters. Thus, in light fog, the visibility range is 500–1000 m, and in heavy fog or strong sand burrs it can decrease to tens or even several meters.

Total radiation, reflection of solar radiation, absorbed radiation, PAR, Earth albedo

All solar radiation coming to the earth's surface - direct and diffuse - is called total radiation. Thus, the total radiation

Q = S* sin h + D,

Where S– energy illumination by direct radiation,

D– energy illumination by scattered radiation,

h– the altitude of the Sun.

Under cloudless skies, the total radiation has a daily variation with a maximum around noon and an annual variation with a maximum in summer. Partial cloudiness that does not cover the solar disk increases the total radiation compared to a cloudless sky; complete cloudiness, on the contrary, reduces it. On average, cloudiness reduces total radiation. Therefore, in summer, the arrival of total radiation in the afternoon is on average greater than in the afternoon. For the same reason, it is higher in the first half of the year than in the second.

S.P. Khromov and A.M. Petrosyants gives midday values ​​of total radiation in the summer months near Moscow with a cloudless sky: on average 0.78 kW/m2, with the Sun and clouds - 0.80, with continuous clouds - 0.26 kW/m2.

Falling on the earth's surface, the total radiation is mostly absorbed in the upper thin layer of soil or in a thicker layer of water and turns into heat, and is partially reflected. The amount of reflection of solar radiation by the earth's surface depends on the nature of this surface. The ratio of the amount of reflected radiation to the total amount of radiation incident on a given surface is called the surface albedo. This ratio is expressed as a percentage.

So, from the total flux of total radiation ( S sin h + D) part of it is reflected from the earth's surface ( S sin h + D)And where A– surface albedo. The rest of the total radiation ( S sin h + D) (1 – A) is absorbed by the earth's surface and goes to heat the upper layers of soil and water. This part is called absorbed radiation.

The albedo of the soil surface varies within 10–30%; in wet chernozem it decreases to 5%, and in dry light sand it can increase up to 40%. As soil moisture increases, albedo decreases. The albedo of vegetation cover - forests, meadows, fields - is 10–25%. The albedo of the surface of freshly fallen snow is 80–90%, of long-standing snow is about 50% and lower. The albedo of a smooth water surface for direct radiation varies from a few percent (if the Sun is high) to 70% (if it is low); it also depends on excitement. For scattered radiation, the albedo of water surfaces is 5–10%. On average, the surface albedo of the World Ocean is 5–20%. The albedo of the upper surface of the clouds ranges from a few percent to 70–80% depending on the type and thickness of the cloud cover – on average 50–60% (S.P. Khromov, M.A. Petrosyants, 2004).

The given figures refer to the reflection of solar radiation, not only visible, but throughout its entire spectrum. Photometric means measure the albedo only for visible radiation, which, of course, may differ slightly from the albedo for the entire radiation flux.

The predominant part of the radiation reflected by the earth's surface and the upper surface of the clouds goes beyond the atmosphere into outer space. A portion (about one third) of the scattered radiation also escapes into outer space.

The ratio of reflected and scattered solar radiation escaping into space to the total amount of solar radiation entering the atmosphere is called the planetary albedo of the Earth, or simply Earth's albedo.

Overall, Earth's planetary albedo is estimated at 31%. The main part of the Earth's planetary albedo is the reflection of solar radiation by clouds.

Part of the direct and reflected radiation is involved in the process of plant photosynthesis, which is why it is called photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). PAR – part of the short-wave radiation (from 380 to 710 nm), the most active in relation to photosynthesis and the production process of plants, is represented by both direct and scattered radiation.

Plants are capable of consuming direct solar radiation and reflected from celestial and terrestrial objects in the wavelength range from 380 to 710 nm. The flux of photosynthetically active radiation is approximately half the solar flux, i.e. half of the total radiation, practically regardless of weather conditions and location. Although, if the value of 0.5 is typical for European conditions, then for Israeli conditions it is slightly higher (about 0.52). However, it cannot be said that plants use PAR equally throughout their lives and under different conditions. The efficiency of using PAR is different, so the indicators “PAR utilization coefficient” were proposed, which reflects the efficiency of PAR use and “Phytocenosis efficiency”. The efficiency of phytocenoses characterizes the photosynthetic activity of the plant cover. This parameter has found the most widespread use among foresters to assess forest phytocenoses.

It must be emphasized that plants themselves are capable of forming PAR in the vegetation cover. This is achieved due to the arrangement of leaves towards the sun's rays, rotation of leaves, distribution of leaves of different sizes and angles of inclination at different levels of phytocenoses, i.e. through the so-called vegetation architecture. In the vegetation cover, the sun's rays are refracted many times and reflected from the leaf surface, thereby forming its own internal radiation regime.

The radiation scattered within the plant cover has the same photosynthetic significance as the direct and diffuse radiation arriving at the surface of the plant cover.

Radiation from the earth's surface

The upper layers of soil and water, snow cover and vegetation themselves emit long-wave radiation; This terrestrial radiation is more often called the intrinsic radiation of the earth's surface.

Self-radiation can be calculated by knowing the absolute temperature of the earth's surface. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, taking into account that the Earth is not an absolutely black body and therefore introducing a coefficient? (usually equal to 0.95), ground radiation E determined by the formula

E s = ?? T 4 ,

Where? – Stefan-Boltzmann constant, T– temperature, K.

At 288 K, E s = 3.73 10 2 W/m2. Such a large release of radiation from the earth's surface would lead to its rapid cooling if this were not prevented by the reverse process - the absorption of solar and atmospheric radiation by the earth's surface. The absolute temperatures of the earth's surface are between 190 and 350 K. At such temperatures, the emitted radiation practically has wavelengths in the range of 4–120 μm, and its maximum energy occurs at 10–15 μm. Consequently, all this radiation is infrared, not perceived by the eye.

Counter radiation or counter radiation

The atmosphere heats up, absorbing both solar radiation (albeit in a relatively small fraction, about 15% of the total amount coming to the Earth) and its own radiation from the earth's surface. In addition, it receives heat from the earth's surface through thermal conduction, as well as through the condensation of water vapor that has evaporated from the earth's surface. The heated atmosphere radiates itself. Just like the earth's surface, it emits invisible infrared radiation in approximately the same wavelength range.

Most (70%) of atmospheric radiation reaches the earth's surface, the rest goes into outer space. Atmospheric radiation arriving at the earth's surface is called counter radiation E a, since it is directed towards the earth’s surface’s own radiation. The earth's surface absorbs oncoming radiation almost entirely (95–99%). Thus, counter radiation is an important source of heat for the earth's surface in addition to absorbed solar radiation. The counter radiation increases with increasing cloud cover because clouds themselves radiate strongly.

The main substance in the atmosphere that absorbs terrestrial radiation and sends counter radiation is water vapor. It absorbs infrared radiation in a wide range of the spectrum - from 4.5 to 80 microns, with the exception of the interval between 8.5 and 12 microns.

Carbon monoxide (carbon dioxide) strongly absorbs infrared radiation, but only in a narrow region of the spectrum; ozone is weaker and also in a narrow region of the spectrum. True, absorption by carbon dioxide and ozone occurs in waves whose energy in the spectrum of terrestrial radiation is close to the maximum (7–15 μm).

The counter radiation is always somewhat less than the terrestrial one. Therefore, the earth's surface loses heat due to the positive difference between its own and counter radiation. The difference between the earth's surface's own radiation and the counter-radiation of the atmosphere is called effective radiation E e:

E e = E s – E a.

Effective radiation is the net loss of radiant energy, and therefore heat, from the earth's surface at night. Own radiation can be determined according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, knowing the temperature of the earth's surface, and counter radiation can be calculated using the above formula.

Effective radiation on clear nights is about 0.07–0.10 kW/m2 at lowland stations at temperate latitudes and up to 0.14 kW/m2 at high-mountain stations (where counter radiation is less). With increasing cloudiness, which increases counter radiation, the effective radiation decreases. In cloudy weather it is much less than in clear weather; consequently, the nighttime cooling of the earth's surface is less.

Effective radiation, of course, also exists during the daytime. But during the day it is blocked or partially compensated by absorbed solar radiation. Therefore, the earth's surface is warmer during the day than at night, but the effective radiation during the day is also greater.

On average, the earth's surface in mid-latitudes loses through effective radiation about half the amount of heat it receives from absorbed radiation.

By absorbing the earth's radiation and sending counter radiation to the earth's surface, the atmosphere thereby reduces the cooling of the latter at night. During the day, it does little to prevent the heating of the earth's surface by solar radiation. This influence of the atmosphere on the thermal regime of the earth's surface is called the greenhouse, or greenhouse, effect due to the external analogy with the effect of glass in a greenhouse.

Radiation balance of the earth's surface

The difference between absorbed radiation and effective radiation is called the radiation balance of the earth's surface:

IN=(S sin h + D)(1 – A) – E e.

At night, when there is no total radiation, the negative radiation balance is equal to the effective radiation.

The radiation balance moves from nighttime negative values ​​to daytime positive values ​​after sunrise at an altitude of 10–15°. It goes from positive to negative values ​​before sunset at the same height above the horizon. In the presence of snow cover, the radiation balance moves to positive values ​​only at a solar altitude of about 20–25 o, since with a large albedo of snow, its absorption of total radiation is low. During the day, the radiation balance increases with increasing solar altitude and decreases with its decrease.

Average midday values ​​of the radiation balance in Moscow in summer under clear skies, given by S.P. Khromov and M.A. Petrosyants (2004), are about 0.51 kW/m2, in winter only 0.03 kW/m2, under average cloudy conditions in summer about 0.3 kW/m2, and in winter close to zero.