Introduction. Becoming a politician Lincoln's foreign policy

(Lincoln, Abraham) (1809–65) American politician. The clearest statement of his democratic ideals is contained in the famous speech at the dedication of the cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where the Civil War battle took place that began the retreat of the Confederate army south from its northernmost point. Saying that “the world will scarcely notice or long remember what we say here,” Lincoln expressed the hope that “the government of the people, by the people and for the people, will not perish from the face of the earth.” There may be more hidden in Lincoln's words than revealed. In particular, he was not a principled opponent of slavery, but rather a principled defender of the United States. Mastering the art of manipulation, he was more successful than many others in pitting the Democrats of the South and North against each other, which led to a split among the Democrats during the presidential election of 1860 and the election of Lincoln, who received less than 40% of the total vote.

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LINCOLN, Abraham

1809-65) - one of the greatest statesmen of the USA. L. was born in Kentucky, the son of a farmer. In his youth he was a lumberjack and woodcutter, a ferryman on the river. Ohio and Mississippi raftsman. Stubbornly educating himself, L., at the age of 27, passed the bar exam. In 1834-41, L. was a member of the Illinois State Legislature, in 1847-48 - a member of Congress, and from March 1861 to April 1865 - President of the United States. L.'s activities as president took place in the context of the civil war of 1861-65. His entire domestic and foreign policy was subordinated to the struggle for the victory of the bourgeois democracy of the North in the war against the slave-owning South. But the southerners were better prepared for active action and hoped, with the help of foreign intervention, to crush the federation with a quick blow even before the northerners had time to mobilize and train an army. During the first 2 years, military operations developed in favor of the southerners. During this dangerous period of the war for the North, L. showed himself to be a major statesman and diplomat. In the first two years of the war, the North faced great danger from England and France. The English ruling circles sympathized with the slave-owning South and hoped that the collapse of the Union would restore the dependence of the North American continent on England. In turn, France from 1862 until the end of the civil war kept an expeditionary army in Mexico, which posed a serious threat to the United States (see. London Convention 1861). Napoleon III was running around with the idea of ​​destroying the federation and partially restoring the former French influence in America. The blockade of the confederation ports announced by the government of Latvia served as the most important tool for achieving a turning point in the war. But the blockade caused great discontent in England: the English cotton industry depended on the raw materials of the southern states. In April 1861, L. declared a blockade of all ports located from Virginia to the Mexican coast. The British ambassador in Washington, protesting against the blockade, threatened intervention in favor of the southerners. In May 1861, England, in response to the blockade, issued a declaration of neutrality. In June of the same year, France, Spain and Holland followed the example of England. Declarations of neutrality were seen as recognition of the confederation as a belligerent. But L., having correctly assessed the decisive military significance of the blockade, took a firm position on this issue. Southerners ordered warships from England and France to break the blockade. In 1862, despite the protests of the US government, they received two cruisers from England: Alabama and Florida. The difficult situation of the northern armies forced L. to come to terms with this fact. L. also showed compliance during the Trent incident, when an American warship stopped the English steamer Trent near Cuba and detained members of the southern mission heading to London and Paris. Considering the difficult military and international situation of the northerners, L. released the members of the mission. Thus, L. managed to deprive the British of a reason to break with the North and to recognize the independence of the southern confederation. L. spoke differently with England when the northerners achieved a turning point in the war, and Washington’s international position strengthened. 5. IX 1863 one of the two warships ordered for the confederation was to be sent from Liverpool. US Ambassador to London Adams told British Foreign Secretary Rossel: “It would be superfluous for me to remind you, Lord, that this means war.” After 3 days, Rossel informed Adams that both ships built for the Confederacy would be detained in Liverpool. Russia's friendly position played a significant role in improving the international position of the United States. Foreign Minister Gorchakov, in negotiations with the US envoy in St. Petersburg, Taylor, confirmed the existence of plans for intervention by European powers in America and promised that Russia would reject an invitation to participate in the implementation of these plans that do not correspond to its interests. In 1863, the Pacific and Atlantic squadrons of the Russian fleet visited San Francisco and New York. The arrival of the Russian fleet in America was seen as great moral support for Latvia and the federation. Representatives of the Russian fleet were given a cordial welcome by US Secretary of State Seward. Russian sailors were warmly welcomed by various public organizations. The issue of black emancipation occupied a large place in Latvia's foreign policy. The liberation of blacks (1. I 1863) attracted advanced social groups in England and France to the side of the northerners. However, in 1861-62 L. adhered to different tactics. In May 1862, when the commander of the southeastern front gave the order to free blacks in Florida, Georgia and South Carolina, L. immediately canceled this order and, in a message to Congress, proposed to free blacks only with appropriate compensation to slave owners. In the first period of the war, L. considered it more important to maintain the resulting temporary, fluctuating buffer of border slaveholding states in a state of neutrality than to strengthen the position of supporters of the North in England and France. In 1864 L. was elected president for the second time. The First International, represented by Marx, welcomed L. and the struggle he waged against the southern slave owners. Lenin believed that this struggle had “the greatest, world-historical, progressive and revolutionary significance.” 14.IV 1865, two weeks after the fall of Richmond (the capital of the southern states), L. was mortally wounded by an agent of the slave owners Bus.

Moscow, November 7 - "Vesti.Ekonomika". The American president is, among other things, responsible for US foreign policy.

If we talk about domestic policy, then the president coordinates all issues of internal affairs with the US Congress and the states, but as for foreign policy, here the constitution gives the president broader powers.

The president can command the armed forces, conclude treaties of alliance, and appoint diplomats.

Moreover, the president can deploy troops for up to 60 days without congressional consent.

In general, a good president pursues a foreign policy that meets the national interests of his country.

At the same time, at the moment, many believe that US President Donald Trump does not meet this criterion, since his policies run counter to US national interests.

Nevertheless, analysts cite the example of other US presidents who actually pursued a very smart and rational foreign policy that was fully in the interests of the country.

Below we will talk about five US presidents whose foreign policies are still considered the best in history.

George Washington

George Washington - the first popularly elected president of the United States of America (1789-1797), one of the founding fathers of the United States, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, participant in the War of Independence, creator of the American institution of the presidency.

In the sphere of foreign policy, Washington initially established the superiority of the executive branch over the legislative branch.

The President advocated US non-interference in the confrontation between European powers, issuing a proclamation of neutrality in 1793.

However, at the same time he recognized the French revolutionary government and confirmed the treaty of friendship of 1778, although avoiding any conflicts.

Jay's Treaty, signed in November 1794 by the President's representative, eliminated the threat of war with Great Britain, but split the country into two camps.

More favorable was the attitude toward Pinckney's Treaty of 1795, which established the boundaries between the United States and Spanish possessions and granted Americans the right to freedom of navigation along the Mississippi.

Thus, Washington managed to strengthen the position of the United States on the American continent and protect the country from harmful interference in European affairs. Washington's foreign policy has also brought considerable benefits to the development of trade.

John Adams

John Adams - American politician, prominent figure in the American Revolutionary War, first vice president and second president of the United States (1797-1801).

Adams's presidency was marked by crises and conflicts, such as the XYZ Affair (a diplomatic incident that led to undeclared naval war between the US and French navies), the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, and the confrontation with Jeffersonians. At the same time, he is considered the founding father of the American Navy.

Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln - American statesman, 16th President of the United States (1861-1865) and the first of the Republican Party, liberator of American slaves, national hero of the American people.

Lincoln personally directed the military effort that led to victory over the Confederacy during the Civil War of 1861-1865.

His presidency led to the strengthening of executive power and the abolition of slavery in the United States.

Lincoln included his opponents in the government and was able to bring them to work towards a common goal. The President kept Great Britain and other European countries from intervention throughout the war. During his presidency, the transcontinental railroad was built, the Homestead Act was adopted, which resolved the agrarian question. Lincoln was an outstanding orator, his speeches inspired northerners and remain a shining legacy to this day. At the end of the war, he proposed a plan for moderate reconstruction, associated with national harmony and renunciation of revenge. On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was mortally wounded at the theater, becoming the first US president to be assassinated.

Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt - American politician, 25th Vice President of the United States, 26th President of the United States in 1901-1909, representative of the Republican Party, Nobel Peace Prize laureate for 1906.

Under him, the United States began to turn into a full-fledged world power, which European countries were forced to respect.

Roosevelt revived the Monroe Doctrine and added a new feature to it: now not only could Europe not interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere, but also, if any country in the region began to “behave badly,” the United States could take measures to maintain order in it.

Another important achievement of Roosevelt was the construction of the Panama Canal. Despite the obstacles, he was able to organize everything in accordance with his plans, because he was not the kind of person who deviates from his goals.

And for his mediation in the Russo-Japanese War, Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize.

Of course, his activity can be treated controversially, but one thing is clear: under President Theodore Roosevelt, the United States became one of the great powers of the world.

Richard Nixon

Richard Nixon - 37th President of the United States of America (1969-1974).

The first and only US president to resign before the end of his term.

During his reign, American astronauts landed on the moon, and a series of reforms were implemented that led to the virtual stoppage of the Bretton Woods system. Foreign policy during this period was led by Henry Kissinger.

Under Nixon, the United States improved relations with the People's Republic of China (after the president's sensational personal visit to China in February 1972), and a policy of détente began in relations with the USSR.

In May 1972, Nixon (the first president since F. Roosevelt in 1945) and his wife visited the Soviet Union. During this visit, he signed the SALT I Treaty with Brezhnev.

During the presidential election, Nixon campaigned under the slogan of ending the war in Vietnam with an “honorable peace.”

In 1969, the new US administration began a policy of “Vietnamization” aimed at transferring responsibility for control over the country's territories to the troops of South Vietnam - in fact, the goal of this policy was to find opportunities for the withdrawal of US troops from the conflict zone.

In July, the systematic withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam began, which lasted more than three years.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Magnitogorsk State University"

History department

Department of New and Contemporary History

Final qualifying work

majoring in History

Political portrait of Abraham Lincoln

Introduction

Chapter I. On the way to the presidency: the formation of A. Lincoln as a politician

Chapter II. Lincoln's political activities as President of the United States during the Civil War of 1861-1865

Conclusion

List of sources and literature

Applications

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic is due to ongoing discussions about the historical role of Abraham Lincoln in the national history of the United States of America. To this day, there are directly opposite assessments of Lincoln's presidency in historiography: from openly apologetic to almost insulting. In the first case, the 16th President of the United States appears before us as the savior of American democracy, the liberator of slaves and the statesman who prevented the collapse of the United States. In the second case, he is portrayed as an absolutely “gray” politician who is guilty of inciting a four-year Civil War that claimed the lives of about 600 thousand Americans. In this regard, an objective assessment of Lincoln's figure becomes an important scientific task, especially given the fact that this year marks the 145th anniversary of his death. Meanwhile, Lincoln's life and work are not only of scientific interest. By studying the biographies of presidents, we learn the spiritual values ​​and mentality of Americans, and this contributes to the growth of mutual understanding between our peoples.

Historiography of the problem. 145 years have passed since the assassination of A. Lincoln, but discussions around his name and the events associated with him do not subside in historical science to this day.

American historiography. Based on the study of historiographic reviews prepared by Russian researchers (No. 16, 21, 22, 33), we can conclude that in American historiography there are 2 key approaches to assessing the historical role of Abraham Lincoln.

The first belongs to conservative historians and is characterized by an interpretation of the figure of the 16th president as an unremarkable person, not brilliant in his intelligence, who, ironically, ended up as president of the United States. From the position of such researchers as E. Coulter, Simkins, Randell and others, it was precisely because of his mediocrity and political provincialism that Lincoln allowed the bloodiest fratricidal conflict in US history (No. 33, pp. 257-259).

The second approach is manifested in the works of historians predominantly of the left and radical orientation - W. Dubois, W. Foster, F. Foner, G. Aptheker, D.M. Potter, K. Van Woodward, D. Mac Cardell and others. Their assessment works contain the following set of assessments: 1) Lincoln enjoyed the support of the majority of Americans, was distinguished by exceptional honesty and did not abuse the power given to him during the war; 2) the personality and activities of A. Lincoln largely determined the fate of the United States during the difficult and dramatic period of the Civil War, directing its history in the only right direction. The integrity of the Union was restored, slavery, which hampered the development of the country, was destroyed, the agrarian question was resolved democratically; 3) Lincoln is a national hero, the embodiment of revolutionary traditions, a man who immortalized himself forever with the publication of the Emancipation Proclamation, which opened a new, most important page in the history of the American people (No. 33, pp. 261-262).

Domestic historiography paid attention to the biography of Lincoln mainly in connection with the events of the Civil War of 1861-1865. In the writings on this issue, the narratives about the president’s life were not independent, but fit into the general plan of covering the revolutionary conflict. This tradition was founded in the works of the first Soviet Americanists A.V. Efimova (No. 23, 24, 25), M.M. Malkina (No. 44), A.I. Blinova (No. 15), I.P. Dementyev (No. 21, 22), developed by the new generation of Soviet Americanists R.F. Ivanov (No. 28, 29, 30), G.P. Kuropyatnik (No. 39, 40, 41), S.N. Burin (No. 17) and continues to exist in the works of modern Russian historians, for example, T.V. Alentyeva (No. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14) and others. A number of general works on US history, when analyzing the history of the Civil War of 1861-1865, could not help but affect the personality of Lincoln as a president who was a direct participant in these events (No. 27, 31, 32, 34, 36, 38, 49, 50).

In conclusion, it should be noted that today in Russian historiography there is only one work devoted to the political biography of Abraham Lincoln. It belongs to the famous specialist R.F. Ivanov, who back in 1964 published the monograph “Abraham Lincoln and the American Civil War” (No. 28). Based on the analysis of a wide range of sources: unpublished archival materials, documents of the US Congress, the press, this monograph still retains its scientific significance, as evidenced by its republication a year after the author’s death in 2004 (No. 29).

Based on the degree of development of the topic in American and domestic historiography, the author determines the following goals of the task.

The purpose of the thesis is analyze the life path, political career and socio-political views of A. Lincoln.

The goal requires solving the following tasks :

1) Study the formation and development of A. Lincoln’s views on such key problems of American socio-political thought as the institution of slavery, the integrity of the state and the fate of the South;

2) Consider the process of Lincoln’s formation as a politician, paying special attention to the atmosphere in which he spent his childhood and youth, psychological characteristics, and the most important events of his political career before his election to the presidency of the United States.

3) Analyze the activities of Lincoln as the head of the US executive branch during the Civil War of 1861-1865, highlighting the evolution of his approaches to resolving the conflict between the North and the South.

Object our research is a portrait of Abraham Lincoln as a political figure, and subject– his life path, political career and socio-political views.

Territorial framework Our operations include the territory of the United States of America.

Chronological framework The thesis covers the years of Abraham Lincoln's life - 1809-1865. At the same time, it should be noted from the very beginning that the greatest attention in the essay will be paid to his political activities as leader of the Republican Party and President of the United States.

Source base of the research. The documents used in the work, with a certain degree of convention, can be divided into several groups.

1. Public speeches of A. Lincoln. This group consists primarily of presidential inaugural speeches (No. 1). In them, A. Lincoln summed up the activities of his predecessors and determined the main directions of socio-economic development of the United States during his presidency. The value of this kind of sources is difficult to overestimate, since they reflect the transformation of A. Lincoln’s views on the problem of slavery, the unity of the state and relations with the Confederates.

2. Legislative acts and regulatory documents adopted during the era of the Civil War of 1861-1865. These, first of all, include the American Constitution, amendments to the basic law, indicating changes in the socio-economic sphere of the state. Particularly noteworthy is the law on the abolition of slavery and the Homestead Act, the initiator of which was A. Lincoln. This group of sources is concentrated in various anthologies and collections of documents (No. 2, 4, 5, 6).

3. Works of political and public figures who were contemporary with the events. This group of sources includes the works of K. Marx and F. Engels (No. 3, 8), who closely followed the events of the Civil War in the United States and, among other things, assessed the activities of A. Lincoln. This group is complemented by the works of the Russian revolutionary democrat N.G. Chernyshevsky. His articles in Sovremennik magazine, republished in Collected Works (No. 7), are full of meticulously collected information about Lincoln's policies. Analysis of works by N.G. Chernyshevsky required serious source criticism, since the author had obvious sympathy for the 16th President of the United States, considering him a revolutionary, a fighter for the abolition of slavery.

Thus, an extensive source base, in our opinion, made it possible to ensure the necessary representativeness and reliability of the factual material and made it possible to solve the research objectives.

Research methodology.

This work uses the principles of historicism and scientific objectivity. The principle of historicism is expressed in the approach to reality as developing over time, which made it possible to consider the patterns of development of the objects under study. The principle of objectivity allowed us to approach all issues and phenomena critically, based on the available facts.

This work uses such methods as the historical-comparative method, the chronological method, and the systematic method.

The historical-comparative method allows us to consider a historical phenomenon, the circumstances of its occurrence, what stages it went through in its development and what it subsequently became.

The chronological method involves the study of historical events from the point of view of their development, it allows us to consider all phenomena in sequence and helps to localize the scope of our research.

The systemic method allows us to consider a phenomenon in a general system with other phenomena, the actual correlation of information from sources, the logical verification of evidence, the correlation of sources with actually developed events.

Work structure is determined by the main purpose and objectives of the study: it consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusions, appendices and list of sources and literature.

Chapter I. On the way to the presidency: the formation of a politician

Lincoln's paternal ancestors can be traced to Samuel Lincoln, a weaver who emigrated from Hingham in Norfolk, England to Hingham in Massachusetts in 1637. Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, into a family of uneducated farmers - Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks, who lived in a small log cabin on a farm in Gardin County, Kentucky (near the town of Hodgenville). He was named after his grandfather, who was killed by Indians. When Abraham was seven years old (1816), the family moved to Indiana, and a little later to Illinois. At the age of nine (1818), Abraham lost his mother, after which his father married the widow Sarah Bush Johnston. The stepmother, who had three children from her first marriage, believed that the children should receive an education (No. 40, p. 20). Lincoln became the first in his family to learn to write and count, although, according to his own admission, he attended school for no more than a year because of the need to help the family. Since childhood, he was addicted to books and carried his love for them throughout his life. Dennis, his childhood friend, later wrote: “After Abe was 12 years old, there was never a time when I saw him without a book in his hands. At night in the hut, he would overturn a chair, block the light with it, sit on his edge and read. It was just strange that a guy could read so much” (No. 40, p. 13). As a child, Lincoln read the Bible, Robinson Crusoe, The History of George Washington, and Aesop's fables (No. 37, p. 21).

When he was a politician, he surprised many with his knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, quotes from which he inserted into his speeches. A striking example is Lincoln’s “House Divided” speech, the leitmotif of which was the impossibility of the young country’s continued existence in a state of “half slavery and half freedom”; Subsequently, this speech became a textbook (No. 17, p. 211). In addition, Lincoln helped his neighbors write letters, thus honing his grammar and style (No. 32, p. 98). He sometimes walked 30 miles to court to hear lawyers speak.

From an early age, Abraham helped the family with field work, and as he grew older, he worked in a variety of ways - at the post office, as a lumberjack, as a land surveyor and as a boatman. He was especially good at chopping wood, for which he received the nickname “chipcutter.” Lincoln avoided hunting and fishing because of his moral convictions. Physically, Abraham was much more developed than his peers (No. 40, p. 15).

Slavery occupied a significant place in Lincoln's worldview. His uncle and uncle's father owned slaves. Lincoln's father rejected slavery for both moral and material reasons: as a worker, he could not compete with slave labor.

In 1830, Abraham Lincoln's family moved again. Lincoln, having become an adult, decides to start an independent life. He finds temporary work, during which he gets to sail down the Mississippi River and visit New Orleans, where Lincoln visited the slave market and retained his hostility to slavery throughout his life (#41, p. 221). He soon settled in the village of New Salem, Illinois. There he devoted all his free hours to self-education and classes with a local school teacher. At night, the future president read books by the light of a torch (No. 41, p. 223).

In 1832, Lincoln ran for a seat in the Illinois Legislature but was defeated. After this, he began to systematically study science. Lincoln initially wanted to become a blacksmith, but after meeting a justice of the peace, he took up law. At the same time: he and his companion tried to make money at a trading post, but things were going badly (No. 14, p. 45).

In 1832, an uprising of Indians broke out in Illinois, who did not want to leave their native places and move west, across the Mississippi River. Lincoln joined the militia and was elected captain, but did not take part in the fighting. In 1833, Lincoln was appointed postmaster of New Salem. Thanks to this, he received more free time, which he devoted to studies. The new position allowed him to read political newspapers before leaving. At the end of 1833, Lincoln received the position of surveyor. Having agreed to this work, for six weeks he intensively studied Gibson's Theory and Practice of Topographical Affairs and Flint's Course of Geometry, Trigonometry and Topography (No. 28, p. 81).

During his years living in New Salem, Lincoln often had to borrow money. With his habit of repaying his debts in full, he earned one of his most famous nicknames - “Honest Abe” (No. 13, p. 44).

In 1835 (at age 25), Lincoln was elected to the Illinois State Legislature, where he joined the Whigs. When Lincoln entered the political arena, Andrew Jackson was President of the United States. Lincoln welcomed his reliance on the people in political actions, but did not approve of the policy of the federal center refusing to regulate the economic life of the states. After the session of the Assembly, he took up the study of law even more decisively than before. Having studied on his own, Lincoln passed the bar exam in 1836.

In the same year, in the Legislative Assembly, Lincoln managed to achieve the transfer of the state capital from Vandelia to Springfield, where he moved in 1837. There, together with William Butler, he merged into the firm “Stuart and Lincoln”. The young legislator and lawyer quickly gained authority thanks to his oratorical abilities and impeccable reputation. He often refused to take fees from insolvent citizens whom he defended in court; traveled to different parts of the state to help people resolve litigation. After the assassination of an abolitionist newspaper publisher in 1837, Lincoln gave his first principled speech to the Young Men's Lyceum in Springfield, emphasizing the values ​​of democracy, the Constitution, and "the legacy of the Founding Fathers."

In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the House of Representatives from the Whig Party. In Washington, not being a particularly influential figure, he, however, actively opposed the actions of President Polk in the Mexican-American War, considering it unjustified aggression on the part of the United States. Nevertheless, Lincoln voted for the allocation of funds to Congress for the army, for the material support of disabled soldiers, wives, and lost husbands. In addition, he supported the demand for voting rights for women. Lincoln sympathized with abolitionists and was opposed to slavery, but did not recognize extreme measures and advocated the gradual emancipation of slaves, since he put the integrity of the Union above the freedom of blacks (No. 40, p. 20).

Popular opposition to the Mexican-American War damaged Lincoln's reputation in his home state, and he decided to forgo re-election to the House of Representatives. In 1849, Lincoln was notified that he had been appointed secretary of the then Oregon Territory. Accepting the offer would have meant the end of his career at booming Illinois, so he declined the assignment. Lincoln withdrew from political activity and in subsequent years practiced law, became one of the leading lawyers in the state, and was legal counsel for the Illinois Central Railroad. During his 23-year legal career, Lincoln was involved in 5,100 cases (excluding unreported cases), and he and his partners appeared before the State Supreme Court more than 400 times (No. 42, p. 225).

In early 1855, the Illinois Legislature nearly elected Lincoln to the U.S. Senate. The following year he joined the Republicans and actively participated in the election campaign of their presidential candidate J. Fremont. Although this candidate lost to Democrat J. Buchanan in both the Illinois and national elections, Illinois Republicans carried representatives to elective offices in the state. In 1858 he was nominated as a candidate for a seat in the US Senate. His opponent in the election was Democrat Stephen Douglas. The debate between Lincoln and Douglas, during which the issue of slavery was discussed, became widely known (some called this debate a dispute between the “little giant” (S. Douglas) and the “big sucker” (A. Lincoln). Lincoln was not an abolitionist, but opposed slavery on moral grounds. He considered slavery a necessary evil in the agrarian economy of the South. Trying to challenge the arguments of Douglas, who accused his opponent of radicalism, Lincoln assured that he was not in favor of granting political and civil rights to blacks. The issue of slavery, according to him opinion, falls within the competence of individual states and the federal government has no constitutional right to interfere in this problem.At the same time, Lincoln firmly opposed the spread of slavery to new territories, which undermined the foundations of slavery, because its extensive nature required expansion into the undeveloped lands of the West.

Stephen Douglas won the election, but Lincoln’s anti-slavery speech “A House Divided,” in which he substantiated the impossibility of the country’s continued existence in a state of “half-slavery and half-freedom,” spread widely in the United States, creating its author’s reputation as an anti-slavery fighter (No. 28, p. 62 -63).

In Congress, Lincoln opposed the ongoing Mexican-American War, although he voted to supply arms and ammunition to troops on the battlefield. He announced that he would initiate legislation to end slavery in the District of Columbia, but he never followed through on his promise. He also introduced a series of "operational resolutions" calling on Democratic President J. Polk to present evidence that Mexico had provoked the war by invading the United States. Most members of the House of Representatives remembered him primarily for his speech against L. Cass, whose candidacy the Democrats were going to nominate in the presidential election of 1848 against the Whig candidate, the hero of the Mexican War, General Z. Taylor.

In October 1859, John Brown's rebellion broke out in the South, seizing the government arsenal and planning to start a slave rebellion in the South. The detachment was blocked by troops and exterminated. Lincoln condemned Brown's actions as an attempt to forcefully resolve the issue of slavery (No. 29, p. 25).

Moderate views on the issue of slavery determined the election of Lincoln as the compromise presidential candidate of the Republican Party in the 1860 election. Both parties, Democratic and Republican, fought for the values ​​that the candidates represented. Americans associated Lincoln's personality with hard work, honesty, and social mobility (No. 2, p. 69). Coming from the people, he was a “self-made” man. Abraham, who was already called Honest Abe, drew the right conclusions from his first unsuccessful companies. This time he built his election tactics much more competently. A. Lincoln’s behavior during the election campaign was very curious; he not only did not make election trips, but also did not give election speeches, maintaining complete silence on all the pressing problems of the country’s life, leaving the campaigning to other Republican politicians. However, a significant role in the election campaign was played by the visualization of the candidate’s image with the help of photographs, of which a huge number were taken. On them, Lincoln appeared in the image of a wise lawyer and politician, a representative of the elite, and this should have had the most positive impact on future electors. To do this, the features of the most popular presidents of the past, J. Washington and E. Jackson, were superimposed on Lincoln’s election image, creating support for the archetypes of American consciousness.

To succeed, he needed the North to vote actively, and the Republican headquarters paid very serious attention to this issue (No. 40, p. 35).

On November 6, 1860, participation in elections exceeded 80% of the population for the first time. Lincoln, largely thanks to the split in the Democratic Party, which nominated two candidates, managed to get ahead of his rivals in the elections and become the President of the United States and the first from his party. Lincoln won the election largely due to the support of the North. In nine southern states, Lincoln's name did not appear on the ballot at all, and he managed to win only 2 out of 996 counties (No. 6, p. 89).

The slave states threatened to secede from the Union if the Republicans won even before the election results were announced. The new president was not to take office until March 1861. Back on Christmas Day, South Carolina seceded from the Union with a loud slam of the door. Then Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Texas and Louisiana joined it. In early February 1861, the seceding states proclaimed the Confederate States of America and installed former senator and Secretary of War Jefferson Davis as president. Later, four more states seceded and joined the South: Tennessee, Arkansas, Virginia and North Carolina. The border states of Kentucky, Missouri, Delaware and Maryland, where slavery flourished, hesitated for a long time, but still remained in the Union. In the end, the 23 states of the Union were opposed by the 11 states of the Confederacy (#24, p. 92).

On February 23, 1861, Abraham Lincoln arrived in Washington on a special train. During his inauguration on March 4, the capital was filled with troops maintaining order. In his speech, Lincoln said: “I believe that, from the point of view of universal law and the Constitution, the union of these States is eternal. Eternity, even if not expressly expressed, is implied in the Basic Law of all government forms of government. It may be confidently asserted that no system of government as such has ever had in its Fundamental Law a provision for the cessation of its own existence.... Again, if the United States is not a system of government in the proper sense of the word, but an association of States founded merely by compact, it may Can it, like a contract, be peacefully terminated by fewer parties than were present at its creation? One party to the contract can violate it, that is, break it, but isn’t everyone’s consent required to legally cancel it? Based on these general principles, we come to the statement that from a legal point of view the Union is eternal, and this is confirmed by the history of the Union itself. ...It follows that no state has the right to secede from the Union purely on its own initiative, that decisions and regulations adopted for this purpose have no legal force, and that acts of violence committed within any state (or states) directed against the Government of the United States , acquire, depending on the circumstances, an insurrectionary or revolutionary character.”

In fact, his words were received with skepticism by many. Lincoln really didn't look like a politician. In an effort to prevent a fratricidal war, he warned the separatists: “The most important problem of the civil war is in your hands, my disgruntled compatriots, and not in mine. The government is not going to attack you. You won't get conflict unless you attack first. You are not bound by any oath registered in heaven to destroy the existing system of government, while I will be bound by the most solemn oath to support, preserve and defend it.”

Nevertheless, the Confederates attacked and captured Fort Sumter. Lincoln faced a difficult choice. The fact is that the US Constitution does not allow “unlawful invasion of the armed forces upon the soil of any State or Territory, under whatever pretext whatsoever.” Only two days after the capture of the fort, President Lincoln declared the states of the Confederacy in a state of rebellion and appealed to his compatriots to defend themselves. 75 thousand volunteers heard his call. In the first months of the war, Lincoln needed to create an army and navy, restore the functionality of government agencies, and concentrate all resources for the armed struggle. During this period, “Honest Abe” admitted to reporters: “My life is spent in preventing the storm from carrying away my tent, and I drive in the pegs as quickly as the storm tears them out” (#37, p. 268).

Thus began the bloody Civil War. By the way, adhering to strict terminology, the events of 1861-1865 were not a Civil War at all, although they went down in history under this name. A civil war is an armed struggle for state power between citizens of one country, and the South in this situation did not at all lay claim to national power and the overthrow of Lincoln’s government (No. 41, p. 99).

The conclusions include the following. Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 in Kentucky into the family of a poor Puritan farmer, Thomas Lincoln. Since childhood, Abraham had to engage in agricultural work. Despite the fact that he did not have the opportunity to receive an education, Abraham early became addicted to reading books.

In his youth, Lincoln tried the professions of a store clerk, assistant county surveyor, storekeeper, and lumberjack. In 1836 he began practicing law. From 1834 to 1842, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois Legislature four times as a Whig member. During these years, he showed himself as a politician criticizing slavery and the slave trade.

In 1854, Lincoln became one of the organizers of the Republican Party. It was during these years that the main political views of the 16th President of the United States were formed. Besides his opposition to slavery, Lincoln was not a supporter of war and hoped to resolve disputes peacefully.

As a result of the elections, having received 40% of the vote, Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States. He began his presidential duties on March 4, 1861. In his inaugural speech, he outlined his political views and the future directions of his administration (No. 24, p. 166).

Chapter II. Lincoln's political activities as President of the United States during the Civil War of 1861-1865.

The decade immediately preceding the Civil War was a time of rapidly developing revolutionary crisis. Political factors contributed to the aggravation of the slavery issue. For several decades, slave owners controlled the central links of political power in the country: the presidency, Congress and the Supreme Court. First of all, they began to lose influence in Congress. The rapid population growth of the northern states (the flow of European immigration was directed there) led to the predominance of northerners in the House of Representatives. Not wanting to allow the dominance of the northern states in the Senate, the planters sought to maintain an equal number of free and slave states. During the first half of the 19th century. they managed to achieve this goal. If in the northern states the bourgeois order, farm agriculture, and capitalist industry were quickly established, then in the southern states the slave system dominated (No. 19, p. 212).

The planters of the South farmed using extensive methods, constantly needed new lands and sought to seize fertile lands in the West. But these lands were also claimed by the North American bourgeoisie, farmers and settlers. Further expansion of the territory of the plantation economy ensured the preservation of slavery. Planters traditionally exported agricultural products and raw materials to European countries and imported industrial goods from there (No. 25, p. 98). As a result, North American manufacturers were deprived of a source of raw materials and a market for industrial products. These factors led to contradictions between the capitalist North and the slave-owning South. Due to the weakness of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie of the North, political power belonged to the planters, who nominated their proteges for president. The desire to maintain low duties on industrial goods imported from Europe forced some farmers to also give their votes to southern candidates (No. 54, p. 182).

However, an increasing number of people opposed slavery, in the 50s of the XIX century. the fight against slavery intensified. The need to abolish slavery became inevitable. During the armed struggle against slavery, the Republican Party was formed in the state of Kansas, uniting in its ranks the bourgeoisie, farmers - opponents of slavery (No. 35, p. 69).

In 1861, the states created the Confederacy, whose troops rebelled in April and captured forts and arsenals in the south of the country. The outbreak of the Civil War was the result of aggravation of economic and socio-political contradictions between two social systems: the system of wage labor and the system of slavery. The nature of the war was a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the second revolution on US territory. Slave-owning planters fought to preserve slavery as a social system and spread it throughout the country. The northerners considered the main task at the first stage of the war to be the restoration of the Union of all states and the prevention of the spread of slavery to new regions.

The creation of the Confederacy of Southern slaveholding states was accompanied by the adoption of the Constitution of the Confederate States of America on March 11, 1861, which included a provision declaring Negro slavery a “state of nature.” Foreign slave trade was prohibited. This decision was intended to ensure the speedy recognition by European countries of a new state entity in North America. The Government of the Confederation sent its special representatives to the capitals of England, France, Russia and Belgium in order to establish diplomatic relations with them. At the same time, a Confederate delegation was also sent to Washington to resolve issues related to the division of federal property, as well as recognition of the new North American state (No. 32, p. 126).

The Buchanan administration directed its diplomats in Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, England, France, Russia and Holland to convey to the governments of their countries of accreditation a message expressing the hope that they "will not take any steps that may encourage revolutionary movement of seceding states or increase the danger of discontent in those states that still remain loyal” to the Union (No. 57, pp. 86-87).

The message received by the Russian government, in part, read: “If the independence of the “Confederate States” is recognized by the great powers of Europe, it may disrupt the friendly relations, diplomatic and commercial, which now exist between those powers and the United States. All these consequences, which the imperial court will certainly witness, are contrary to both the interests of Russia and the interests of our country!” (No. 44, p. 163).

Lincoln did not comment on this issue before officially taking office. Meanwhile, the seceding states captured almost all the federal forts, arsenals, post offices, and customs houses within their territories and began to create their own army. On March 4, 1861, in his inaugural address, the new president chose the method of persuasion, assuring the people of the southern states that they should not fear a Republican administration and that time, “the traditional healer of passions,” should be given the opportunity to heal the wound of schism. Mantra-like assertions about the inviolability of the Union were accompanied by expressions of hope for the possibility of a peaceful resolution of the dispute with the South. Lincoln assured the secessionists that he had “no intention of interfering, directly or indirectly, with the institution of slavery in those States where it exists” (No. 15, p. 230).

At the same time, the President considered it necessary to warn the rebel forces that “not a single state has the right to secede from the Union purely on its own initiative, that decisions and resolutions adopted for this purpose have no legal force, and acts of violence within any state or states directed against the government United States, acquire an insurrectionary or revolutionary character, depending on the circumstances.” Expressing the hope that his words would be regarded “not as a threat, but merely as the declared intention of the Union to defend and preserve itself by constitutional means,” Lincoln emphasized that in pursuing this policy he would avoid bloodshed or violence “unless they are imposed upon the national authorities.” authorities,” and assured the seceding states: “The government is not going to attack you. You won’t get conflict if you don’t attack yourself.” After the inaugural ceremony concluded, Buchanan told Lincoln, “If you, sir, are as happy in coming into this house as I am in leaving it and coming home, you are the happiest man in the land” (No. 14, p. 69).

The new president faced a daunting task. The North was not ready for military operations. It was necessary to create a combat-ready army, which was difficult, given that many of the most capable officers, graduates of the best US military academy at West Point, had retired, gone into business or joined the Confederate army. Lincoln declared a blockade of southern ports from South Carolina to Texas, and a little later extended its effect to North Carolina and Virginia. At the same time, an attempt was made to develop another compromise between the North and the South: Senator from Kentucky J. Crittenden proposed amendments to the constitution, according to which the border between slave-holding and free states would again be established at 36 ° 30 "N. But the Republican congressmen were against expansion of the area of ​​slavery and the inevitable growth in this case of the influence of the slave states on the political and economic life of the country, and Crittenden’s proposal was rejected (No. 53, p. 144).

By April 1861, Fort Sumter, one of the few forts remaining under Federal control, was running low on food supplies. Washington did not intend to surrender the fort, since this would be regarded as an acknowledgment of the fact of secession and indirect recognition of the Confederacy. The federal government also did not dare to send military assistance to the fort garrison, since this was fraught with the risk of starting a war. President Lincoln chose the third option, sending only food supplies and at the same time notifying the authorities in Charleston that he would not use force provided they did not interfere with the direction of this expedition. The American Civil War began on April 12, 1861, with the first salvos of Confederate artillery fired at Federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter. The next day, after a 34-hour bombardment, the fort capitulated, and on April 15, Lincoln declared a state of rebellion and placed 75,000 volunteers under arms, who were offered a 3-month contract. The federal government did not expect that the southern rebellion could last longer (No. 5, p. 232).

In an address to the Congress of the Confederate States of America on April 29, 1861, Confederate President J. Davis gave his interpretation of the events that took place, reminding those gathered of some historical facts. He noted that at one time the climate and soils of the North made the development of slavery there inappropriate, as a result of which the northerners decided to sell their slaves to the southerners, whose climate and soils were conducive to the development of agriculture. However, when the growing population of the South began to threaten the northern states' political control over the US Congress, the Republican federal government began to pursue a policy of undermining the institution of slave ownership in the southern states. The attempts made by the Confederacy to avoid a military confrontation with the North were, as Davis stated, rejected by Washington, to whom he placed all the blame for the outbreak of hostilities (No. 58, p. 177).

In the political circles of the North there was still no unity on the issue of secession of the southern states. Some politicians did not believe in the seriousness of the events that were taking place, others believed that the southern states should be allowed to leave the Union. But the majority was convinced that a favorable attitude towards the secessionists was unacceptable, and insisted on the immediate start of military action. As a result, the President ordered the army, concentrated on his orders in Washington and its environs, to go on the offensive. The outbreak of the war strengthened the secession movement. Virginia, which Lincoln believed would remain loyal to the Union, seceded on April 17, 1861, followed by Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The secession of Virginia dealt a particularly strong moral blow to the federal authorities, as a result of which the secessionists found themselves in close proximity to the federal capital. Lincoln managed to thwart the Confederate plans for the four slave states located on the borders with the states of the North - Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri and Maryland, the so-called "Border States", thereby giving additional strength to the Union and at the same time weakening the Confederacy.

President Lincoln's special attention to these slave states was determined by their important strategic and political significance for the Republican administration. Given thirteen states' views on slavery as a constitutional institution and the Confederacy's efforts to win them over, the possibility of their support for the secessionists was quite real (No. 13, pp. 97-99).

To ensure the neutrality of these states, Lincoln had to send federal troops to Maryland, which brought charges of dictatorship against him. Further developments showed that the measures taken by the president to ensure the formal neutrality of the border states were not enough. Delaware remained neutral throughout the Civil War. But Kentucky and Missouri, despite their declared neutrality, found themselves split - their populations fought on both the Confederate and Union sides. In these two states, governments were formed representing the interests of both hostile parties. However, as a result of the more active position of the Confederates, both states, formally remaining neutral, were admitted to the Confederacy in November-December 1861 and were ultimately completely destroyed by the war.

As a result of the measures taken by the Lincoln administration, a complex balance of power emerged in the country between the North and the South. On one side of the conflict, at least formally, there were 23 states with a total population of 22 million people, and on the other - 11 states with a white population of almost 9 million and black slaves, the number of which was at least 4 million people. The North was distinguished by a higher level of economic development, advanced forms of administrative management, developed industry and mechanized agriculture, which made it possible to supply the army with the necessary weapons, ammunition, military equipment and food. The main financial capital of the country was concentrated in the North. In addition, the northerners had a much more advanced system of internal railway and water communications, which sufficiently reliably provided for the needs of an army that was quantitatively superior to the Confederate army. But neither the number of states, nor the size of their population, nor even the level of economic development and financial capabilities of the North played a key role in the initial stage of the war. All these advantages of the northerners had yet to manifest themselves, while the advantage of the South in more talented and experienced military leadership and a more combat-ready army began to be felt already in the first months of the war. Having slaves who did all the productive work, the South was able to put the entire combat-ready white population under arms (No. 36, p. 213).

On July 21, 1861, the first major battle of the Civil War took place near the river. Bull Run (Virginia). The Union army suffered a crushing defeat and retreated. Panic gripped the federal capital, but the Confederate army, in need of rest, did not take advantage of the success achieved. However, the defeat at the river. Bull Run demonstrated that the northerners' hopes for a quick end to the war were unjustified. The United States Congress decided to form a 500,000-strong federal army of volunteers willing to sign a three-year contract. Battle of the river Bull Run created another problem - to find a military leader capable of leading the army of the northerners, and first of all, the army concentrated on the river played a particularly important role. Potomac. Its commanders - Generals E. McDowell, J. McClellan, J. Pope - changed one after another after a series of defeats.

In August 1862, McClellan was again put in charge of the army. In September, at the Battle of Antietam Creek, he prevented General R. Lee's invasion of Maryland, but when McClellan was unable to build on his success, he was accused by Lincoln of "indecisiveness" and again removed from command, this time permanently. Further successes of the North in the Civil War began to be associated with the name of General Ulysses Grant (No. 15, pp. 233-234).

The difficult situation of the federal army caused discontent among the population. Lincoln was under pressure from the Republican Party, which included both supporters of the immediate abolition of slavery and those advocating the gradual emancipation of slaves. Lincoln adhered to a policy of compromise, thanks to which he was able to prevent a split in the party. He was convinced that even in wartime a political process must be carried out in the country (No. 13, p. 438). This made it possible to preserve freedom of speech throughout the Civil War and avoid serious restrictions on civil liberties during the crisis of the two-party system (No. 13, p. 440). During Lincoln's presidency, elections were held and citizens participated in government. After the Southern attack on Fort Sumter, some members of the Democratic Party formed a “loyal opposition” that supported government policies.

On August 22, 1862, in an interview with the New York Tribune, when asked why he was delaying freeing the slaves, Lincoln replied: “My highest object in this war is the preservation of the union, and not the preservation or abolition of slavery. If I could save the union without freeing a single slave, I would do so, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do so, and if I could save it by freeing some slaves and not others. freed, I would do it. What I do in the matter of slavery and for the colored race, I do it because I believe it will help preserve the union. With this I explained my intention here, which I consider as an official duty. And I do not intend to change my often expressed personal desire that all people everywhere should be free” (52).

Almost all the steps taken during Lincoln's first presidency were in one way or another related to the Civil War. The issue of increasing customs tariffs was resolved. The US Congress passed the Morrill Tariff Act, which doubled the customs rates of 1857 to almost 47% of the value of imported products. This decision made reconciliation with the South impossible.

But Lincoln had no other choice: after the entire region of the South was actually declared a free trade zone, importers of the North announced an ultimatum to the president - either customs tariffs would be established in the South, similar to those that were forced to pay in the northern states, or they would refuse to pay duties on imported goods .

An economically free and independent South posed a serious threat to the interests of the North - the guarantor of further economic progress of the entire American nation.

The issue of slavery occupied an important but not decisive place in the claims of the seceded states, especially since the Lincoln administration initially did not intend to question the right to the existence of slavery, widespread in the South. More important were considered issues related to financial, tax and trade-economic policies, which, according to southerners, were carried out by the central government in the interests of the “northern Yankees” and to the detriment of the interests of the South, although it accounted for up to 80% of all tax revenues to the federal government. budget. Being an agricultural region of the country, the South produced mainly agricultural products - cotton and grain, and was a large consumer of industrial products produced in the North. The volume of agricultural products exported by the South amounted to $213 million per year in value terms, while the North exported its products worth $47 million. All exports from the southern ports were carried out on ships owned by shipowners from the northern states (No. 16, p. 235).

The southerners saw an infringement of their interests in the fact that, by increasing protective tariffs, the federal government showed concern, first of all, for the interests of industrialists and traders of the North, who did not hide their intentions to put obstacles in the way of interstate and foreign trade of the South. The introduced high duties on imports made it possible, as they were convinced in the South, to even more effectively “replenish the national coffers with Southern money so that Lincoln could spend it on the needs of the Republican Party.” Among other things, an increase in customs tariffs inevitably entailed an increase in prices and, consequently, a decrease in the living standards of southerners.

Having decided to secede from the Union, southern leaders hoped that the creation of their own state would turn the American South into a serious trade and economic rival of the North and allow Charleston, New Orleans and Savannah to become the main trading ports of the New World and competitors of New York, Boston and Philadelphia. These plans were reflected in the text of the constitution adopted by the seceding states on March 11, 1861. By repealing the Morrill Tariff, southerners declared the entire southern region a free trade zone, which prompted Lincoln to decide to declare a blockade of southern ports. Without such a blockade, the southern market, unprotected from the influx of European goods, would have been closed to industrial goods from the northern states, and southern raw cotton would have become too expensive for the textile industry of the North, which would have given a huge advantage to English textile workers (No. 34, p. 214) .

This decision of Lincoln caused a negative reaction from England and France, who were deprived of the opportunity to obtain the American raw cotton necessary for their textile industry. The severe damage their economies suffered as a result of the Lincoln administration was a major reason for the moral and material support these European powers provided to the Confederacy throughout the Civil War. London found it possible to send several ships to help the southerners, which were actively used by the Confederate government to fight the blockade of southern ports declared by the North. In particular, one of these ships - the privateer Alabama - caused serious damage to the northern fleet.

Lincoln still relied on the effectiveness of non-coercive persuasion. He sought to gain support from farmers in the northern and western states and, perhaps, win over those who had not yet decided on their attitude towards the war. In May 1862, the Homestead Law was signed, according to which a citizen of the country or a person who expressed a desire to become one, practically free of charge, received the right to a plot of land up to 160 acres in size (approx. 65 hectares), allocated from the state land fund. The plot became the full property of the citizen after five years. It could be obtained after six months of permanent residence in the United States, but in this case a fee of 1.25 cents per acre was charged.

At the same time, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia, where the federal capital of Washington was located, and monetary compensation began to be paid to former slave owners. All children in black families born after July 4, 1863 were declared free. The principle of gradual emancipation of slaves began to be applied to black slaves of the rebellious states, control over which passed to the federal army. From this contingent, regiments were formed that began to participate in battles against the Confederates (No. 55, p. 192).

Adopted in the same 1862, the Law on National Currency Circulation introduced paper money that was not exchangeable for gold and silver and provided for a number of measures to improve the system of centralized monetary credit and financing vital sectors of the economy. Congress made large appropriations for the construction of railroads, shipbuilding and other profitable industries. An effective state apparatus for taxes and fees was created and the entire government apparatus was centralized to an even greater extent. The logical result of the decisions made by the Lincoln administration in the financial and economic sphere was the creation in 1863-1864 of a national banking system, which made it possible to concentrate all the financial flows of the state in the hands of the federal government. No less important for the purposes of waging war was the law on the Pacific Railway signed in 1862 (No. 39, p. 215).

In the current situation, the Lincoln government had no time for active foreign policy initiatives, and everything that happened in this area of ​​government activity was in one way or another connected with the main domestic political problem of the United States. The federal government was able to focus all its attention on solving internal issues, primarily due to the situation that developed in the world during these years - the European powers were completely absorbed in their internal problems and limited themselves to only expressing their sympathies for the Confederation. As the American historian H. Brooks Adams stated in 1863: “Nothing has given us more sweet peace... than the delightful state of confusion in which Europe now finds itself. Nothing more than panic in all directions and the most complex combination of opposing interests that can only be imagined... Russia lives in anticipation of war, and France behaves as if this war is inevitable. Meanwhile, England barely moves and makes faces at all the other states. Our affairs have faded into a very distant place, thank God” (No. 49, p. 238).

In the fall of 1861, an American ship detained and searched the English ship Trent, on board of which emissaries of the slave-holding South were sailing to Europe with secret dispatches. This incident, known as the Trent Affair, caused a wave of approval in the North, although it was contrary to international law. The Trent incident strained US relations with England to such an extent that London sent an 8,000-strong army contingent to Canada. However, neither England nor France made direct attempts to intervene in the conflict between North and South. Despite England's economic interest in the northern states of the United States, the sympathies of London and the English press were obvious. The Trent incident was blown out of proportion into a major international scandal. The federal government understood the extreme disadvantage for it to get involved in a possible war with Great Britain at the least favorable moment for it, when a civil war was going on in the state. “We should not fight more than one war,” Lincoln believed (No. 50, p. 87).

In June 1862, the US government established diplomatic relations with Liberia and Haiti. This decision was regarded by American abolitionists as a positive fact. Basically, it was calculated that as a result of the development of relations with these black republics, not only free American blacks, but also fugitive slaves of the South would be stimulated to leave there. At the same time, a treaty prohibiting the slave trade was signed with England, and the difficulties that arose in Anglo-American relations due to violations of the American-Canadian border by agents of the Confederacy were resolved (No. 16, pp. 238-239).

In August 1861, Lincoln did not consider it possible to support General Fremont, who declared the slaves belonging to the rebel slave owners of the South to be free people and, moreover, removed him from his post as commander of the northern forces in Missouri. However, two months later, the President gave General Sherman instructions to accept runaway slaves as hired workers and even allowed, under certain conditions, to arm them (No. 31, p. 409).

Brought by the very course and logic of the events of the first stage of the war to the idea of ​​​​the need to abolish slavery, the government by its actions, in particular its desire to avoid an open break with the “loyal” slave owners of the border states and its intention to wage war only by constitutional methods (i.e., without questioning the existence of slavery) prevented the speedy achievement of victory. The situation changed significantly only after the midterm congressional elections in November 1862, when the Republicans, and therefore the president himself, were defeated. During these elections, the Republican Party, in alliance with the abolitionists, spoke out quite strongly in favor of the immediate emancipation of the slaves. After the Democratic victory in the elections in 1862, Lincoln had only one choice - to remove supporters of a compromise with the South from the military leadership of the North, in particular, to remove General McClellan from the post of commander-in-chief of the Northern army. Lincoln was prompted to take this step by the general’s indecision in the battle with the Confederates at the river. Antietam Creek in September 1862. Simultaneously with the removal of McClellan from command of the army of the North, a “purge” was carried out in it; several officers were arrested on charges of treason; persons suspected of belonging to the “copperheads,” as supporters of the southerners began to be called in the North, were imprisoned or dismissed from the army (No. 16, p. 241).

The Battle of Antietam provided Lincoln with the opportunity to take a decisive step. At the beginning, the president had only one goal - to revive the Union. However, as hostilities progressed, an increasing number of northerners began to be inclined to the need to end slavery. In July 1862, Lincoln proposed issuing the Negro Emancipation Proclamation. Members of his cabinet dissuaded the President from the advisability of this, arguing that in conditions where the North was losing, this step could be considered a step of desperation. The Battle of Antietam Creek changed the military situation. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation warning that if the rebellious states did not return to the Union by January 1, 1863, all slaves within their territory would be declared “free forever.” The Confederate states ignored the warning, and then a second proclamation was issued, which concerned only certain regions of the country and declared the emancipation of only slaves owned by the secessionists. Slaves in states already occupied by federal troops, as well as slaves in border and southern states that did not join the Confederacy, were not subject to emancipation, since such a decision by the Lincoln administration could embitter the "loyal" slave planters in these states and weaken their support for the federal government ( No. 47, p. 69). By issuing the Negro Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln was counting on the impression it would make on the black soldiers fighting in the ranks of the Northern army.

A truly revolutionary step would be the liberation of blacks, that is, the abolition of slavery, but the president did not dare to take this. However, an equally important addressee of the proclamation were black slaves, who successfully replaced the white labor force mobilized into the army in the southern states. By declaring them free, Lincoln hoped to increase the flow of fugitives from the southern plantations and thereby undermine the labor reserves of the South (No. 51, p. 214).

Lincoln recognized the shortcomings of the proclamation and tried to persuade members of Congress from the loyal slave-holding border states to support a long-term program of compensated emancipation of slaves. However, dissatisfaction was expressed by both conservative Republicans, who considered it too radical and contrary to the constitution, and abolitionists, who called it ineffective. In the country, including in the free states, there were many white citizens who did not want to live and work side by side with blacks. Some Northern state legislatures even passed laws condemning the “wicked, inhuman and profane” proclamation and called for peace with the Confederacy. Given the latter circumstance, the president made an unprecedented decision to meet with influential representatives of the black community of the North to discuss with them the whole range of issues related to the emancipation of slaves. Recognizing the existence of significant differences between the white and black races, Lincoln stated the fundamental impossibility of a time when whites and blacks would have equal rights. As the most reasonable way out of the current situation, he suggested that blacks go to where they are “treated in the best way,” in particular to Latin America. The meeting participants, however, rejected the president's idea, and the administration was faced with the task of finding ways to integrate the country's black population into American society.

In January 1863, Lincoln issued another Emancipation Proclamation, which made the emancipation of slaves a declared goal of the war and inevitably led to the eventual abolition of slavery throughout the country. Allowing blacks to serve in the federal army in arms gave the Northern Civil War the character of a crusade against slavery. “The Armed Negro,” a nightmare that haunted southerners for many decades, became a reality and had a noticeable impact on the further course of events (No. 56, p. 301).

On March 3, 1863, conscription was introduced for the first time in the history of the United States. At the same time, the rich were allowed to hire dummies and pay off their service, which provoked unrest, during which many blacks died as victims of lynching (No. 13, p. 434). The American poor, unlike the wealthy, did not have the opportunity to pay off. People, both in the North and in the South, talked about “the war of the rich, which was fought by the hands of the poor” (No. 16, p. 244).

In May 1863, a Union army of 130,000 was defeated by General Lee's 60,000-man army. The northerners retreated, and the Confederates, bypassing Washington from the north, entered Pennsylvania. In this situation, the outcome of the three-day battle at Gettigsberg, during which more than 50 thousand people died, was of great importance. Lee's army was defeated and retreated to Virginia. On July 4, on the Western Front, after a multi-day siege and two unsuccessful assaults, General Grant captured the Vicksburg fortress. On July 8, Port Hudson in Louisiana was captured. Thus, control over the Mississippi River valley was established, and the Confederacy was divided into two parts.

On November 19, 1863, a ceremony was held to open the Gettigsberg National Cemetery, where the fallen participants in the battle were buried. In December 1863, Lincoln promised amnesty to all rebels (except Confederate leaders) subject to an oath of allegiance to the United States and acceptance of the abolition of slavery. The year ended with the victory at Chattanooga (No. 26, p. 212).

Thus, at the beginning of the Civil War, the new president faced a difficult task. The North was not ready for military operations. As a result of the measures taken by the Lincoln administration, a complex balance of power emerged in the country between the South and the North.

In May 1862, the Homestead Act was signed into law. At the same time, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia. All children in black families born after July 4, 1863 were declared free. The logical result of Lincoln's decisions in the financial and economic sphere was the creation of a national banking system in 1863-1864.

In January 1863, Lincoln issued another Negro Emancipation Proclamation, which made the issue of black emancipation, which made the issue of the abolition of slavery a declared goal of the war, and which inevitably led to the eventual abolition of slavery throughout the country. Ideas about ending the war became increasingly popular among the people. Lincoln's task was to instill in Americans confidence in victory. The President abolished the transfer of those arrested to court, which allowed the imprisonment of deserters and the most ardent supporters of slavery and peace. In the 1863 elections to Congress, the Democrats managed to narrow the gap in the number of mandates, but the Republicans still managed to maintain a majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.

In March 1864, Lincoln appointed Ulysses Grant as commander-in-chief, who, together with W. Sherman and F. Sheridan, carried out the plan developed by Lincoln - to weaken the southerners and defeat them by launching coordinated attacks. The main blow was dealt by Sherman's army, which launched an invasion of Georgia in May. Grant's army acted against General Lee (No. 14, p. 43).

In 1864, the first term of A. Lincoln's presidency ended. The past four years have been years of successes and defeats, triumphs and tragedies for him and the administration.

By the beginning of the next presidential campaign, the outcome of the war was already obvious. Although Lincoln had many enemies in his own party, in Congress and in the government, they were not strong enough to prevent his candidacy. However, in the summer of 1864 the president himself doubted his victory. In the situation that had developed by this time, when General W. Sherman was stopped near Atlanta, and Grant, having suffered huge losses, never took Richmond, many northerners, tired of the war, wanted peace at almost any cost. The Democratic Party took advantage of these sentiments, which, having gathered at the national convention in August 1864, declared the war over and nominated General J. McClellan, “repressed” by Lincoln, as its presidential candidate. This Democratic choice reinforced Lincoln's belief that he would lose the election.

But the main reason for his uncertainty was the split in the Republican Party itself, caused by the disagreement of the radical wing of the party with Lincoln's plans for granting equal political rights to former rebels. Radical Republicans pushed for a much more radical solution to the slavery issue. After the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, they demanded harsh punitive measures against the South, which was contrary to Lincoln's beliefs. They motivated their position by the fact that if such liberal intentions of the president were indiscriminately implemented in these states, former rebels would again come to power and would not allow the abolition of slavery. In reality, their fears were more serious - after the restoration of power to the political forces that initiated the Civil War, the confrontation between the political and economic interests of the North and South would inevitably revive with renewed vigor. The Wade Davis Bill, proposed by the radicals, provided for a more rigid model of reconstruction for the southern states, according to which at least 50% of their population had to take an oath of allegiance to the Union, thereby providing a certain guarantee against a return to the past. But Lincoln shelved the bill and confirmed his intention to demand only 10 percent allegiance to the Union (No. 48, p. 119).

As a sign of protest, the radicals tried to unite into the Radical Democratic Party and even nominated J. Fremont as their presidential candidate. General W. Grant refused to be a candidate from the radicals, for which he received the rank of lieutenant general, specially established for him by the grateful Lincoln. By the end of the summer of 1864, the situation on the fronts began to change significantly in favor of the federal army: the troops of the northerners advanced deep into the territory of the Confederacy of the southern states, whose troops suffered one defeat after another, and the radicals returned to the camp of the president’s supporters. The surrender of Atlanta on September 1, 1864 restored the North's confidence in military victory to some extent to Lincoln's confidence in electoral success. Although the election campaign was replete with mutual reproaches from competing parties and especially accusations against the president, none of the political forces questioned the advisability of bringing the war to its logical conclusion. The Republican political platform was uncompromising. They demanded the defeat of the Confederacy and its unconditional surrender, the punishment of rebel leaders, supported the adoption of an amendment prohibiting slavery and a constitution and the payment of benefits to war veterans. On December 22, 1864, General W. Sherman took Savannah, and on December 15-16, General J. Thomas defeated the Confederate Tennessee Army near Nashville (No. 10, p. 193).

The famous American expression “to change horses in the mid-state” (authored by Lincoln) about the undesirability of changing horses at the crossing was more appropriate than ever. The fact that a significant part of the American electorate held this opinion was evidenced by the results of the 1864 presidential election. More than 2.2 million voters voted for the Republican Party candidates A. Lincoln and the recent Southern Democrat E. Johnson - almost half a million more votes than were given to their Democratic rivals. Federal soldiers and their families, who overwhelmingly supported him, played a large role in Lincoln's victory. Lincoln's victory in the Electoral College was even more decisive - he received support there with about 91% of the vote (#59, pp. 247-248).

At Lincoln's insistence, Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution on January 31, 1865, prohibiting slavery in the country. At the beginning of 1865, the victory of the northerners was already a foregone conclusion; in his second inaugural speech, Lincoln called for abandoning vengeance and set the tasks of reconstructing the South and building a harmonious Union.

Grant, who had an army of 115 thousand people in the spring of 1865, forced Lee, who had only 54 thousand people at his disposal, to leave Petersburg, and on April 2, the capital of the confederation, Richmond. On April 9, 1865, Lee signed the Surrender; the resistance of individual units was suppressed by the end of May. After the arrest of Jefferson Davis and members of his government, the Confederacy ceased to exist (#38, p. 461).

The Civil War ended with the surrender of the Confederate states to America on April 9, 1865. The country had to carry out Southern Reconstruction and begin the process of integrating blacks into American society. Five days after the end of the war, on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, at the play “My American Cousin,” the southerner actor John Booth entered the presidential box and shot Lincoln in the head.

Lincoln's assassin John Wilkes Booth was born into the family of a famous actor. Following the example of his father and older brother, John joined a theater troupe in Baltimore in 1856. He acted in tragic roles. During the Civil War, John was already a celebrity. He sided with the Southerners, although his older brothers were Northern supporters, and became a Confederate intelligence officer. Throughout the fall of 1864, the actor made active preparations for the kidnapping of Lincoln, which, according to Booth, would deal a mortal blow to the northerners. John envisioned different options for kidnapping Lincoln - on the street, while traveling or walking, as well as in the theater... The course of military events required quick action. The Confederacy was in its last weeks, and Booth abandoned his previous plan and decided to kill Lincoln (#30, p. 97).

At the end of the Civil War, Lincoln's position was quite complex and contradictory. He was trusted by the broad masses of Americans, but the number of Lincoln's political enemies not only did not decrease, but, on the contrary, kept increasing. Of course, he was hated by the southern planters and the “copperheads” who sympathized with them in the northern states - supporters of an amicable agreement with the rebellious slave states. Lincoln's policies displeased some radicals - the left wing of his own Republican Party.

On April 11, when Grant's army's victory over Lee's was officially celebrated, an enthusiastic crowd approached the White House. In a speech addressed to the crowd, Lincoln said that after the end of the war, blacks should get the right to vote. Booth and his accomplice Payne, standing in the crowd, were furious when they heard the president's words. The actor suggested that Payne immediately shoot Lincoln with a revolver, but he refused - the chances of success were slim. On April 14, the actor visited Ford's Theater, where he carefully examined the government box, then drilled a hole in the door; the lock in it did not work. He bent the wooden strip in advance in order to slide it into the handle of the second door leading into the corridor. You had to go through it to get to the government box (No. 27, p. 82).

On April 14, 1865, after waiting for the start of the second act, Booth entered the government box. There were no guards, no agents, no police in the theater. Booth shot Lincoln in the back of the head. The sound of a small brass pistol firing was faintly audible in the hall, especially since at that moment there was an outburst of laughter. Those present realized that the president had been shot only after seeing a cloud of white smoke.

At that moment, Mrs. Lincoln’s cry was heard throughout the theater: “He shot the President!”

The next morning, Abraham Lincoln died without regaining consciousness. Millions of Americans, white and black, came to pay their last respects to their president during the two-and-a-half week journey of the funeral train from Washington to Springfield, where Lincoln was buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery. Lincoln's tragic death contributed to the creation around his name of an aura of a martyr who gave his life for the reunification of the country and the liberation of slaves.

Booth escaped. Ten days later he was overtaken in northern Virginia. The killer was hiding on the farm of his accomplice Garrett. When soldiers surrounded the barn where the actor was hiding, he refused to surrender. Then the barn was set on fire, and in the confusion that arose, Booth was mortally wounded by an unexpected shot. The soldiers broke down the door and took out Booth, who was still conscious for some time. Then he died, and his body was taken to Washington on a warship. This is the official version of Booth’s death (No. 20, p. 319)

The Civil War was the deadliest military conflict in the history of the United States and the most difficult test for American democracy. Abraham Lincoln became a central historical figure in the consciousness of the American people, a man who prevented the collapse of the United States and made a significant contribution to the formation of the American nation and the abolition of slavery as the main obstacle to the subsequent normal development of the country (No. 31, p. 169). Lincoln marked the beginning of the modernization of the South and the emancipation of slaves. He is the author of the formulation of the main goal of democracy: “A government created by the people, from the people and for the people.”

The sixteenth president of the Union of American States fought a bloody war to unite the country. All of his military experience was associated with short-term service in the army during the fight against the Indians, but Lincoln quickly learned to correctly assess the situation and correctly choose strategy and tactics. He began by mobilizing almost 80 thousand volunteers. Soon the president ordered a complete naval blockade of the southern states in order to paralyze trade and the delivery of military supplies from Europe. The southerners were the best fighters and won many battles, even when they were clearly in the minority. Abraham knew this and made the absolutely correct decision: we need to increase the army even more. He demanded that the number of troops be increased to half a million people (No. 9, p. 174).

The Confederates did not hesitate to sacrifice their lives for their independence, and Lincoln understood perfectly well that the North also needed to give a good, convincing slogan - and he came up with the only true one. He did not at all claim that the main goal of the North was to destroy the slave system of the South, since this motivation would be insufficient for the Northerners. Many of them were against slavery, but not enough to give their lives for the freedom of black slaves. No, the sacred goal of the North was, according to the president, to preserve the unity of the nation, and the destruction of slavery was only an objective consequence of the impending victory. Under such a slogan, Lincoln managed to accomplish the almost impossible: he found a goal that united the vast majority of residents of the northern states.

But we must give the president his due; he was not a hypocrite. In an interview with the New York Tribune, Abraham Lincoln said: “If I could save the Union without freeing a single slave, I would do it. If I could save the Union by freeing all the slaves, I would do it. If I could save the Union by freeing some slaves but not others, I would do that too” (No. 20, p. 329).

On September 22, 1862, when Southern troops were forced to leave Maryland, Lincoln issued a draft Declaration of Freedom, according to which all slaves who were in rebellious states after January 1, 1863 were declared free. Of course, a grandmaster's move, although it cannot be called perfectly clean. Judge for yourself: the president “freed” slaves in enemy territories, which he simply could not control, but did not free them in the North! One way or another, it worked like a sniper shot. If black slaves from the time of Uncle Tom's Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe before the war, fled from the South several at a time, now it is as if the dam has broken.

The declaration of the “Lincum Mass,” as Lincoln was called by the black slaves who idolized him, was also a talented economic sabotage against the Confederacy: all southern men fought, slaves fled en masse to the North, and the old men, women and children who remained at home, of course, could not support the economy of the South. The army of the northerners was actively replenished with black volunteers: before the end of the war, about 200 thousand African Americans joined it.

The “democratic” background of the Declaration did not allow the governments of England and France to take the side of the Confederacy: despite the colossal economic interests in the South and fundamental support for the struggle of the southern states for independence, they understood that the citizens of their own countries would not approve of such an outwardly anti-democratic decision. At the turning point of the Civil War, Lincoln, by promulgating the Declaration, not only reoriented his supporters to a different goal, but simply doubled the number of goals.

He, as a lawyer, clearly understood that the Declaration did not have the slightest legal and constitutional justification. Until the law abolishing slavery was included in the Constitution, every Southerner could prove in any court the full right to his property, including slaves. According to the president himself, the draft Declaration of Freedom had the character of a military stratagem - and in war, as in war (No. 11, p. 96).

During his presidency, a transcontinental railroad to the Pacific Ocean was also built, the infrastructure system was expanded, a new banking system was created, and the agrarian problem was solved. However, at the end of the war, the country faced many problems, including the unity of the nation and equalization of the rights of blacks and whites. In part, these problems still face American society. After Lincoln's assassination, the economy of the United States became the most dynamically developing economy in the world for a long time, which allowed the country to become a world leader at the beginning of the twentieth century. In many ways, his personal qualities made it possible to mobilize the forces of the state and reunite the country. Lincoln had strong moral principles about morality, had a sense of humor, but was also prone to strong melancholy (#54).

To this day, Abraham Lincoln is considered one of the most intellectual presidents of the United States. As a sign of the gratitude of the American people, a memorial was erected in Washington to the sixteenth President Abraham Lincoln as one of the four presidents who determined the historical development of the United States of America (No. 7, p. 89).

The presidential election of 1864 has gone down in American history as the most important. The people had to decide whether to continue the war or not - the administration formed by the Democrats had to offer peace to the South. Rivalries within the Republican camp and the emergence of influential contenders for the presidency, most notably Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase, made it impossible to say with certainty whether Lincoln would be re-elected. In addition, one term in office has become almost a political tradition; since Andrew Jackson, no president has managed to reach the White House for a second time. In July, Lincoln was chosen as the candidate of the Union Party, but still doubted his re-election. The mood in the North was inclined towards a compromise solution, and therefore the victory of the Democrats, whose candidate was none other than General McKellan, who was fired by Lincoln at the end of 1862, was not excluded.

The victory in the battle was decisive: the capture of Atlanta in Georgia by Union troops under the command of General Sherman on September 2, 1864 sharply changed the public mood, calmed the internal party differences of the Republicans and pushed the Democratic Party with its peace proposal into political impasse. Lincoln's victory could be seen as clear authority to continue the war and completely free the slaves. The President quickly submitted the 13th Amendment to the Constitution to Congress, where it was adopted by the required two-thirds majority (No. 36, p. 157).

By the time the president was inaugurated again, the civil war was almost won. In his second inaugural address on March 4, 1865, Lincoln again touched upon the themes of the Gettysburg Address and extended a hand of reconciliation to the Southern states: “Without ill will toward any, and with love of neighbor for all, standing firmly in our God-given right, let us continue strive to complete the work we have started; to bind up the wounds of the nation... to do everything that can give and preserve a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.” This is how he outlined his position on the reintegration of the southern states: leniency and reconciliation, rather than punishment and retribution, should determine the post-war phase.

Meanwhile, Grant's advance on Richmond and Sherman's even more notorious "rush to the sea," which left traces of devastation in its wake, demoralized the Confederacy and marked the beginning of its defeat. At first, Lincoln was skeptical of Sherman's plans because, like Grant, he did not understand the "scorched earth" strategic principle that gave the war its "total" character in the final phase. On April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered his army in Virginia, and a few weeks later the remnants of the Southern troops stopped fighting.

In his last speech, Lincoln strongly advocated the peaceful restoration of the southern states to the union. Their reconstruction included, in addition to the abolition of slavery, the beginning of a confrontation between American society and the situation of freed blacks. Lincoln understood the fundamental task of legal and political equalization of slaves, but did not yet know how to practically implement this in view of racist attitudes in the South and in the North. Suffrage for black men in the South could only be achieved through coercion, which was contrary to Lincoln's idea of ​​agreement and reconciliation. His successor Andrew Johnson also failed in this dilemma. But perhaps Lincoln himself was not able to cope with this extraordinary historical demand (No. 19, p. 328).

A few days after the end of the war, on April 14, 1865, in a theater box, Lincoln was struck by several shots and died of his wounds that same night. This was not the first attempt on the life of an American president. The assassin was a fanatical and possibly mentally ill Southerner, actor John Wilkes Booth, who, along with other conspirators, wanted to kill leading Union politicians (#46, p. 621).

Conclusion

As a result of the study, we came to the following conclusions.

1. His simple origin had a great influence on the formation of Lincoln’s socio-political views. Born into the family of a poor farmer, the future president was familiar with the problems of ordinary people from childhood and, once in the chair of the head of the US executive branch, was focused on solving them. For example, it would not be wrong to say that the initiative to adopt the Homestead Act of 1862 was based on the childhood memories of Lincoln, who undoubtedly knew all the difficulties that a farmer had to face when buying land. It is equally justifiable to say that Lincoln's signing of the Proclamation abolishing slavery is closely related to his childhood negative perception of this institution.

The personal qualities that allowed Lincoln to reach such heights in politics include: natural curiosity, excellent memory, and a constant desire for self-education. The latter is best demonstrated in his legal career, which began with self-studying law and obtaining a lawyer's license. The desire for success also played an equally important role. Lincoln is an ideal example of the embodiment of the “American Dream”: having tried the professions of a land surveyor, storekeeper, lumberjack, and postal worker, he achieved the highest post in the American state - the post of president. It is obvious that Abraham Lincoln’s very life path worked for him, ensuring the sympathy of huge masses of voters in the elections. Finally, Lincoln had what in modern political science is called charisma. Contemporaries recalled that he exuded magnetism and energy, that his appearance attracted people to him.

2. The period of Lincoln's biography from the moment of his election to the Illinois State Legislature in 1834 until his election as President of the United States in 1860 was the time of his formation as a politician. The most important milestones of this period were Lincoln's entry into the ranks of the Republican Party and participation in the presidential election of 1860. In just a short time, he gained wide popularity and proved himself to be an intelligent and cautious politician. In resolving the most pressing issue for the country - the issue of slavery, he consistently promoted the idea of ​​compromise and naively believed in the possibility of a peaceful resolution of the dispute between the North and the South. While being a consistent supporter of not spreading slavery to new territories, Lincoln at the same time did not demand the immediate abolition of slavery, trying to prevent a civil war and the collapse of the American state. Even after being elected president, Lincoln tried in vain to convince the slaveholders who had seceded from the United States and formed the Confederacy to abandon the split in the Union.

3. The period of Lincoln's life associated with the Civil War demonstrates to us his political firmness and goal orientation. Having given up illusions about the possibility of a quick and more or less painless resolution of the conflict with the South, when the army of southerners almost captured the capital twice, the president found the courage to complete what he started and began to implement radical measures in the war against slave owners. He broke the resistance of the copperheads, replaced the leadership of the northern army, which was inclined to compromise with the southerners, and adopted Acts that immortalized his name in US history. The main one, of course, is the Proclamation to Abolish Slavery. Consistently moving towards victory over the South, Lincoln deprived him of any chance of help from abroad. The establishment of close cooperation with Russia became the key to the non-interference of England and France in the internal conflict of the American state and the triumph of Lincoln the diplomat. Finally, Lincoln’s wisdom as a politician lay in the fact that he tried with all his might to preserve the viability of democratic institutions, thereby ensuring the attractiveness of the social project of the northerners. He did not curtail the election procedures, which could have been expected in wartime conditions, participated in the presidential elections of 1864 and was re-elected, once again demonstrating to the public his commitment to democracy. This is probably why he is considered to continue the work of the “founding fathers” of the United States, the creators of American democracy, and at the same time a politician who prevented the collapse of the United States and freed the slaves.

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Appendix No. 1

Emancipation Proclamation (09/02/1862)

Statement by the President of the United States of America Abraham Lincoln

On the first day of January in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or specified portion of a State, the people of which are in rebellion against the United States, are thenceforward and forever declared free. The Executive Branch of the United States, including its military and naval authorities, will recognize and promote the freedom of these individuals and will take no action designed to suppress these individuals or any of them should they attempt to gain true freedom. That on the said day, the first of January, the Executive Powers shall, by special proclamation, designate the States, and, if any, the parts of the States, the people of which are in a state of rebellion against the United States. And in the absence of seemingly conclusive evidence that a particular State and the people thereof are not for the time being in a state of rebellion against the United States, all the States or the people thereof shall on that day be duly represented in the Congress of the United States by the Deputies elected to that body for the elections in which a majority of the eligible voters of a given state will participate.

Wherefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the authority vested in me as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, during actual armed insurrection against the authority and Government of the United States, as an appropriate and necessary military measure to suppress the said above rebellion.

On this first day of January in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my resolution to do so, I have publicly proclaimed for a full period of one hundred days from the first day above stated, the order and names of the states and parts of states of which the inhabitants are respectively in a state of rebellion against the United States: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Palquimines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terreborn, Lafourche, St. Marie, St. Martin and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia (excluding the forty-eight counties that formed West Virginia, as well as Berkeley, Accomack, Morthampton, Elizabeth, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), the excluded parts of which remain as if the proclamation had not been issued.

And by the powers vested in me, and for the reasons aforesaid, I do command and do hereafter declare free all persons held as slaves in the said States and parts thereof, and declare that the executive branch of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, shall recognize and promote the freedom of these persons.

And I call on the persons mentioned to refrain from any violence not caused by the need for self-defense, and recommend, in all cases permitted to them, to work honestly, receiving reasonable wages for it.

And I further declare and announce that the said persons, being in good physical condition, will be accepted into the military service of the United States to fill the garrisons of forts, military positions of posts and other points and the crews of warships of all orders belonging to the above service.

In making this decision, which is sincerely considered as just and provided for by the Constitution in case of military necessity, I appeal to the benevolent judgment of mankind and the magnanimous disposition of the Almighty Lord God.

In confirmation of which, I have placed my hand hereto and caused the seal of the United States to be attached.

Done in the city of Washington, on the first day of January, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three after the birth of our Lord, and the eighty-seventh year of the independence of the United States.

President Abraham Lincoln

Secretary of State William G. Seward

Lincoln took his first steps in politics in 1834. The position of captain strengthened his self-confidence so much that he tried to get a seat in the Illinois House of Representatives. During the election campaign he advocated the expansion and improvement of infrastructure and the development of education. After failing in his first attempt, Lincoln was elected two years later and established his mandate as a member of the Whig Party until 1842. During this period he was active as the leader of his party and chairman of the finance committee. In Illinois, Lincoln went through an excellent political school and gained the authority of his colleagues. In 1836, Lincoln passed a difficult exam and received the right to practice as a lawyer. After becoming a lawyer, he moved to the city of Springfield. Lincoln began to earn good money for the first time in his life. To do this, he had to practice throughout the judicial district. Every spring and fall, he rode horseback or in a buggy for hundreds of miles across the sparsely populated prairie from one village to another, sorting out the litigation of farmers. The cases were mostly small, and the fees for them were negligible. Lincoln achieved fame in the state of Illinois with his deep knowledge of jurisprudence and unselfishness.

Professionally, he was unlucky at first, and he often had debts, which he always repaid to the last penny. Considering his background, Lincoln had an impressive journey: almost like the proverbial rags to riches, the poor son of a pioneer settler, before reaching the age of thirty, became a lawyer with his own practice and a politician in the public spotlight. Even then, he was the embodiment of a “self-made” man, and thus of the “American Dream.” His marriage in 1842 to Mary Todd, the daughter of a Southern planter, only completed the picture of social rise. They had four sons, but only one, Robert Todd, lived to adulthood.

When Lincoln entered the political arena, Andrew Jackson was president. Lincoln shared Jackson's sympathies for the common man, but not his understanding of the philosophy of public rights, that the federal government should, for the sake of the common good, refrain from all economic initiatives and settlements. His political models were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, who promoted the economic consolidation of the union through the activities of Congress and the federal government. Under the slogan “the American system,” they demanded the unification of banking and currencies, improved infrastructure, and the development of American industry through protective tariffs. Like most Whig politicians, Lincoln was reticent on the issue of slavery: he rejected the “special institution” emotionally and morally, but did not want to be counted among the abolitionists, whose inflammatory rhetoric he sharply criticized.

The assassination of abolitionist newspaper publisher Elijah Lovejoy in 1837, reluctantly condemned by the Illinois Congress, marked a turning point in Lincoln's political development. This incident prompted him to make his first principled speech at the Young Men's Lyceum in Springfield. Using motifs and elements of romance in his speech, he emphasized the core values ​​of American democracy and the legacy of the nation's Founding Fathers. The Constitution and laws should be revered as a kind of “political religion”. Rampant mob rule - as in the case of lynching - must never threaten national unity. At the same time, abolitionism 2 did not seem to him the right way to solve the problem of slavery.

The next step in Abraham Lincoln's political career was his election to the House of Representatives of the US Congress in 1847. Working in Congress opens up the opportunity to apply for a place in the government of the country. However, Lincoln failed to stand out among American legislators this time. Moreover, by opposing American aggression in Mexico and the policies of President Polk, Lincoln made many political enemies. The fact was that the United States at that time was pursuing an active foreign policy to seize the lands of neighboring countries, especially Mexico. With the help of weapons and money, Americans in the first half of the 19th century. increased their territory by 3.5 times. The majority of the country's population supported such government actions. Lincoln, a staunch opponent of war, strongly opposed the American invasion of Mexico. Assessing the actions of the government, he stated that “the political course of the Democrats leads to new wars, territorial conquests, and the further spread of slavery.”

When his term in the House of Representatives expired in 1849, he did not even try to run for office. Returning home from Congress to Springfield marked the onset of the worst period in Lincoln's life: he lost political popularity, his legal practice declined significantly, and he incurred large debts. But over the next three or four years, thanks to perseverance and knowledge. Lincoln became the leading lawyer for the state of Illinois. Having taken on this or that case, he always sought a thorough investigation, knew the laws relevant to the matter down to the subtleties, and was able to overcome all the formalities and get to the essence of the issue. Traveling around the judicial district, he regained his former popularity.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 increased political polarization and contributed to the dissolution of the old party system and the emergence of a new political situation. The Whigs, whose northern wing insisted on an unequivocal rejection of slavery, lost support in the South, and the party disintegrated. The political vacuum was filled by the newly formed Republican Party, which organized resistance to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. An unsuccessful test of strength in Congress did not force Lincoln to abandon political activity. The conflicts awakened Lincoln politically and spurred him to activism. In 1856, he joined the Republicans and assumed leadership in Illinois. The composition of the party could not have been more heterogeneous: anti-slavery Democrats, former Whigs, abolitionists, temperanceists and nativists formed a conglomerate, the basis of which was the goal of preventing the further spread of slavery. With the exception of the abolitionists, these groups did not advocate the abolition of slavery in areas where it already existed. For them, what was important, first of all, was new territories, still “free land.” The Republican program boiled down to the well-known formula “Free soil, free labor, free speech, free man.”

At this time, the political struggle within the United States revolved around the issue of undeveloped lands in the west of the country and territories seized from other countries. The southern states, where the plantation slave economy flourished, wanted to extend slavery to new territories. The northern states, where there was no slavery, believed that these lands should go to free farmers and the industrial bourgeoisie. But the question of free land was only part of a more complex and important question for the United States about the future of the country as a whole: whether capitalist forms of property would develop in it or whether the plantation-slave system of the economy would prevail. The issue of slavery was very pressing. Throughout the civilized world it was condemned and the slave trade was prohibited. The United States, which was so proud of its democracy, continued to secretly buy slaves and import them into the country.

The blacks never accepted their terrible situation. They rebelled and fled to the North, but the planters of the South brutally suppressed the uprisings and rounded up the escaped slaves like wild animals. In 1850, they won the right to hunt fugitive slaves throughout the country. Progressive people were sympathetic to the struggle of blacks and advocated the abolition of slavery in the United States. The most determined of them, uniting with the slaves, embarked on the path of armed struggle against the slave owners. So, in 1859, John Brown, having created a small detachment of fugitives and blacks, tried to raise an uprising for the emancipation of all slaves in the South. But the local population did not support the rebels, John Brown was captured and executed.

Abraham Lincoln was an ardent opponent of slavery. “I hate slavery because slavery itself is unjust,” said Lincoln. But as a politician, he understood that attempts to put an end to the shameful phenomenon with drastic measures would only lead to war and the collapse of the state. He admitted to those close to him that the issue of abolishing slavery and preserving the Union of States was a very difficult problem for him. Therefore, he was extremely careful in his political statements.

With growing concern, Lincoln watched the events of "Bloody Kansas", where supporters and opponents of slavery launched a guerrilla war. He was deeply indignant that the Supreme Court, in its 1857 Dreyd-Scott verdict, had clearly justified slavery and thereby effectively overturned the Missouri Compromise. When the famous Democratic Senator of Illinois, Stephen E. Douglas, the chief responsible for the Kansas-Nebraska Act, wanted to run for office in 1858. Lincoln was the opposition Republican candidate. The two politicians' public debates attracted tens of thousands of people, with the masses coming, some by special train, to hear verbal duels between "Little Giant" Douglas (1.62m) and "Tall Baby" Lincoln (1.9m) staged in seven Illinois cities. . Lincoln lost the election, but through verbal battles that revolved largely around slavery, he gained national attention and gained important political advantages for his later career. Lincoln's speech, the slogan of which was taken from the New Testament (Matthew 12:25): “And every house divided against itself cannot stand,” penetrated especially deeply into the public consciousness. Its main thesis was that the United States could not permanently tolerate slavery and a free society and that Americans were therefore forced to choose one system or the other. When Douglas accused his rival of abolitionism. Lincoln countered with a conspiracy theory that powerful Democrats, including President Buchanan, wanted to extend slavery first to new territories and then throughout the union. Lincoln knew that there was no exact evidence for this, but he deliberately made the accusation part of his election strategy, which even then, as he himself admitted, had long-term prospects. Douglas was able to secure the senatorial seat from Lincoln due to his experience and advocacy of the principle of "sovereignty of the people", which left the decision to allow or prohibit slavery to the discretion of the states and territories. On some points he went so far as to accommodate his president that his popularity in the South plummeted. The debate, however, made clear what divided both men: unlike Douglas, Lincoln saw slavery as an evil that he rejected.

Lincoln believed that preserving the Union was more important than all other issues. “Despite the fact that I hate slavery, I would rather agree to its expansion than to see the union disintegrate,” he said. The prospect of a struggle between the South and the North of the country was presented to Lincoln like this: “The house, destroyed by quarrels, cannot stand. I am sure that the present government cannot be stable, remaining half slave, half free. I do not expect that the union will be dissolved, that the house will collapse ", and I believe that the discord in it will cease. It will become either completely free or completely slave-owning." Lincoln was confident in the possibility of a peaceful solution to the dispute between the North and the South. In his heart he hoped that if slavery were limited only to the southern states, then it would gradually die out. Slave labor led to the fact that the land was poorly cultivated and became scarce, and planters, in order to make a profit from their farms, had to constantly expand the territories of their possessions.

Late 50s XIX century was a turning point in Lincoln's life. Actively participating in political disputes, he gained wide popularity in the country. Speaking in various parts of the country, Lincoln showed himself to be an intelligent and cautious politician. He did not support the demand for the abolition of slavery and tried with all his might to prevent a civil war. At the Republican Party Convention in Chicago in May 1860, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency in the third round. As a compromise candidate with relatively few enemies, he handily beat out his well-known rivals William Seward and Salmon Chase. His ally and candidate for the post of vice president was the staunch opponent of slavery, Hannibal Hamlin from Maine. The Republican election platform rejected slavery in the new territories, but did not demand its elimination in the southern states. She condemned the Buchanan administration's "selling out of interests" to the South, promised legislation for the rapid settlement of the western regions in the future, and advocated for freer citizenship provisions and improved infrastructure. Lincoln did not speak publicly during the campaign, but from Springfield he exercised well-thought-out leadership.

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party split over the issue of slavery: its northern wing voted for Douglas, its southern wing for John Breckinridge. And she actually entered the election with two candidates - a circumstance beneficial to Lincoln. Both parties fought their election battles not for specific content, but for the more general values ​​that the candidates personified. “Honest Abe” Lincoln identified himself with the qualities that make up his myth to this day: the industriousness and work ethic, the honest modesty of a pioneer who rose from poverty and, without forgetting his origins and connections with the people, became a candidate for the highest office . It represented not only social mobility, but also honesty and the ability to remain true to oneself. These properties contrasted with the scandals and corruption of the Buchanan administration. The election campaign mobilized the American population to a degree unprecedented before that time. On November 6, 1860, participation in the elections exceeded 80 percent for the first time. It is not surprising that Lincoln, who was attacked by Southern Democrats as an abolitionist and "black Republican", owed his election solely to Northern votes, although he received 40% of the votes cast nationwide, all of them, with a few exceptions, from the densely populated Northern states, so that with his 180 electoral college votes, even with the unity of the Democrats, he had an unattainable lead.

4. As President

Lincoln applied the protectionist system in distributing positions even more consistently than his predecessors. Already in the spring of 1861, 80 percent of political posts previously controlled by Democrats were occupied by Republicans. Lincoln's benevolence, fairness to opponents, poise, humor and generosity allowed him to create a well-functioning government. In distributing cabinet posts, Lincoln showed great political dexterity: he gave the most important posts, such as Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Secretary of Justice and Secretary of the Treasury, to his former rivals - Republicans William Seward, Edward Bates and Salmon Chase. The President skillfully maneuvered between the opinions of government ministers. He patiently listened to everyone, but always made decisions on his own.

Lincoln's election caused extreme anxiety among Southerners, and the time leading up to his inauguration in early March proved difficult for himself and the nation. Even before this, some slave states had threatened to secede if the Republicans won, and that is exactly what happened before Christmas. South Carolina was the first state to dissolve its union with other states. Before February 1, 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded in the first wave. Decisions were made accordingly by state conventions chosen by the people. While still in office, Buchanan allowed the seceding southern states to take possession of the federal fortifications, forts and weapons arsenals located on their territories. Only two fortresses, one of them Fort Sumter, located on an island in front of the port of Charleston, remained in the possession of the union. In early February 1861, the seceding states proclaimed the "Confederate States of America" ​​and installed former senator and Secretary of War Jefferson Davis as its president.

In an effort to restore national unity and aware that the states of the "upper South" had so far behaved loyally, Lincoln avoided harsh tones in his inaugural address on March 4. He compared the demand for secession to anarchy, but again emphasized that he did not think of threatening slavery where it already existed. The President made it clear that he was not thinking about a military conflict, that the fate of the nation was in the hands of the southerners. They did not vow to forcibly destroy the union, while he himself swore to preserve, protect and defend it.

Confederalists paid little attention to Lincoln's call, and last-minute efforts at congressional mediation were unsuccessful. When the President refused to give Fort Sumter to the South, South Carolina troops responded on April 12 by shelling the fort. The civil war has begun. The following four states quickly seceded: Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina and Virginia, whose capital Richmond also became the capital of the Confederacy. The border states of Kentucky, Missouri, Delaware, and Maryland—all slave states—were at first hesitant, but after hesitation and internal dissensions remained in the union. So, the 23 states of the union with approximately 22 million inhabitants were opposed by 11 confederate states, in which 5.5 million whites lived and exactly 3.5 million slaves.

As President, Lincoln was the commander in chief of all armed forces, which required a lot of his time and energy. Apart from a brief stint as a captain in the Black Falcon War, he had no military experience. However, during the war he very quickly developed the ability to assess the strategic position and the necessary operational actions. As a first measure, he called on all states of the union to mobilize 75,000 volunteers with whom he wanted to suppress the “rebellion.” The population in the North responded to this call with great enthusiasm. On April 19, Lincoln ordered a naval blockade to paralyze Confederate trade and stop the entry of military supplies from Europe. On the battlefields, the better trained and led troops of the southern states inflicted painful blows on the Union. After the defeat at Bull Run in Virginia, where Northern troops were routed by the Confederates in July, Lincoln demanded an increase in troops to 500,000 men. The hope of quickly forcing the rebels to capitulate gave way to the reality that a long and brutal war lay ahead. Lincoln called General McClellan to Washington to reorganize the demoralized troops, and in November made "a new Napoleon his commander - a choice that turned out to be problematic. Thanks to the general's cautious wait-and-see actions, Lincoln came under political pressure from his own ranks. The population wanted to finally see victory , and besides, McClellan belonged to the Democratic Party, which further strengthened the skepticism of primarily radical Republicans.

Naturally, military operations were crucial to the advancement of the war. From Lincoln's point of view, it was very important to find a cohesive political concept that would give meaning to this struggle. The Confederate government had a relatively simple matter in this regard: the southern states fought for their independence, the preservation of their slavery-based social system, and the protection of their own territory. The North fought for the principle: for the unity of the nation - and only later, and secondarily, for the abolition of slavery.

In 1862, the government introduced new taxes on the rich and passed a law confiscating rebel property. May 20, 1862 A law was passed that gave the right to every US citizen who had 10 dollars to receive a plot of land of 160 acres in the West (the Homestead Law). After five years, the site became the full property of the settler. This law was of great importance for the outcome of the won. Farmers and workers who had been pushing for this law for decades believed in their government.

The only acceptable solution for the president was for the seceding southern states to revoke their declaration of independence and return to the union - this would open, as Lincoln explicitly put it, room for negotiations on the issue of slavery. First of all, the preservation of the nation was important to him, although he had a natural dislike for the southern social system. On August 22, 1862, he answered the radical Republican publisher of the New York Tribune, Horace Grill, when asked why he was delaying the emancipation of the slaves: “My highest goal in this fight is to preserve the union, not to preserve or destroy slavery. If I could save union without freeing a single slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some slaves and not freeing others, I would do this. What I do in the matter of slavery and for the colored race, I do because I believe it will help to preserve the union... By this I have explained here my intention, which I consider as an official duty. And I do not intend to change my often expressed personal desire, that all people everywhere should be free."

A few weeks after this letter, on September 22, 1862, when the Southern troops were forced to withdraw from Maryland after the Battle of Antwerp, Lincoln decided that the moment had come to make public a decision that had long been ripened: he issued a preliminary declaration of freedom, according to which all slaves, located after January 1, 1863 years in the "rebellious states" were declared free. This geographical limitation was intended to ensure the loyalty of the population in the border states and in already occupied areas. It also meant a concession to moderate voters in the North, for whom the abolition of slavery was not a motive for the war, but who understood that this step could facilitate the victory of the union.

Some radical Republicans criticized the declaration, arguing that it freed slaves where they could not currently be freed, namely in enemy territory, and did not free them where it was possible, namely in occupied areas and in border states that joined the union. This certainly apt argument, however, could not disguise the symbolic explosive power of the declaration, which directly or indirectly brought freedom to almost three million slaves.

Foreign policy, Lincoln's Declaration deprived the governments of England and France of any opportunity to enter the war on the side of the Confederacy. Since now it was a question of a war “for” or “against” slavery, the public in both countries, which had long ago abolished slavery in their colonial areas, clearly took the side of the northern states. Lincoln was well aware that the Declaration of Freedom did not have a strong constitutional and legal basis. Only a properly enacted amendment to the Constitution could finally seal the fate of slavery before the end of the war. Without this step, slave owners could legally demand back their "property" - i.e., freed slaves, since the declaration was only valid as a war measure. Therefore, Lincoln did everything in his power to hasten the ratification of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, issued by Congress, for the final abolition of slavery by the individual states.

The President also proved himself to be a talented diplomat. A striking example is the so-called “Trent case”. Aboard the English ship Trent, two Confederate diplomats were heading to Great Britain and France to persuade Europeans to help the South. However, the English ship was detained by the northerners, and the envoys of the southerners were arrested. The British government regarded the actions of the northerners as an insult. Lincoln understood that the entry of the British on the side of the South was unacceptable, and released the diplomats. The threat of war with Great Britain disappeared.

With his actions against war opponents in the North and his temporary declaration of freedom, Lincoln provided Democrats with ample arguments to fight in the upcoming congressional elections. Meanwhile, a popular settlement law had already been passed, which made it easier for farmers in the West to acquire land, but the latest defeats of the Union troops, combined with a decline in production and rapidly rising inflation, led to losses in the Republican Party. Democrats protested what they considered Lincoln's arbitrary interpretation of the Constitution, using the campaign slogan "For the Constitution as it is, and for the Union as it was," and demanded the return of the seceded states without abolishing slavery. Although the Republicans' lead in the House of Representatives decreased from 35 to 18 seats, they maintained their majorities in both houses of Congress.

In January 1863, Democrats intensified their attacks on Lincoln and his style of warfare and demanded peace negotiations with the Confederates. Based on such public statements, the leading leader of this movement, Representative Vallandigham from Ohio, was arrested and sentenced to prison by a military tribunal. Lincoln, however, allowed him to leave the union and go to the South. The president's revocation of the Habeas Corpus guarantee in this case even affected politics. Such measures were taken more than once, but this did not lead to the suppression of opposition to the Lincoln administration in the North. Conscription, introduced for the first time in the history of the United States on March 3, 1863, provided a new domestic political spark. Particularly controversial were provisions that allowed wealthy Americans to put up dummies in their place and buy their way out of military service. Tension increased in the cities, and in July 1863, riots and street battles began, which were suppressed with the use of military force. More than 100 people died in these protests, among them many blacks who fell victim to lynchings.

Only in the summer of 1863 did the North manage to effectively use its enormous material and numerical advantage. The turning point came in July 1863 at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania, where two forces totaling 160,000 soldiers clashed, of whom more than one-quarter were killed three days later. The Union troops were barely able to hold out, and the Confederates, under the leadership of General Robert E. Lee, were forced to retreat to Virginia. Almost simultaneously, Union troops under the command of General Ulysses Grant achieved success on the Western Front and captured the fortified city of Vicksburg on the Mississippi. The entire Mississippi Valley was now in Northern hands, and the Confederacy was cut in two from north to south. On November 19, 1863, in Gettysburg, Lincoln delivered his most famous speech, the Gettysburg Address, which entered world literature on the occasion of the opening of a large soldiers' cemetery. The President used the sad occasion to put into words long-cherished thoughts about the meaning of the war. Over the graves of the dead, he defined the meaning of the civil war in ten sentences. Using brilliant language, he focused on the founding phase of the nation and on the basic democratic values ​​for which the United States stands: the equality of all people, their right to freedom and government by the people. He emphasized the common sacrifices made by the northern and southern states, and ended with a solemn promise “that these dead have not died in vain, that this nation, with God's help, will experience a restoration of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, will never perish from the face of the people.” land."

In March 1864, Lincoln appointed Grant as commander-in-chief, in whom he finally found a convincing military leader. Together with William Sherman and Philip Sheridan, Grant carried out Lincoln's plan - a large-scale and well-coordinated offensive. Lincoln himself, who routinely sat late into the night poring over military books borrowed from the Library of Congress, developed an entirely new concept of command for the United States, under which his Chief of General Staff (Halleck), Secretary of War (Stanton replaced Cameron), and Commander-in-Chief (Grant) received coordinating instructions from him himself. Lincoln's military genius, coupled with his non-dogmatic approach to the complex, new problems of modern warfare, was later appreciated many times over.

The presidential election of 1864 has gone down in American history as the most important. The people had to decide whether to continue the war or not - the administration formed by the Democrats had to offer peace to the South. Rivalries within the Republican camp and the emergence of influential contenders for the presidency, most notably Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase, made it impossible to say with certainty whether Lincoln would be re-elected. In addition, one term in office has become almost a political tradition; since Andrew Jackson, no president has managed to reach the White House a second time. In July, Lincoln was chosen as the candidate of the Union Party, but still doubted his re-election. The mood in the North was inclined towards a compromise solution, and therefore the victory of the Democrats, whose candidate was none other than General McClellan, who was fired by Lincoln at the end of 1862, was not excluded.

The victory in the battle was decisive: the capture of Atlanta in Georgia by Union troops under the command of General Sherman on September 2, 1864 sharply changed the public mood, calmed the internal party differences of the Republicans and pushed the Democratic Party with its peace proposal into political impasse. Lincoln's victory could be seen as clear authority to continue the war and completely free the slaves. The President quickly submitted the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, where it was adopted by the required two-thirds majority.

By the time the president was inaugurated again, the civil war was almost won. In his second inaugural address on March 4, 1865, Lincoln again touched upon the themes of the Gettysburg Address and extended a hand of reconciliation to the Southern states: “Without malice toward any, and with love for our neighbor, for all, standing firmly in our God-given right, let us continue strive to complete the work we have begun; to bandage the wounds of the nation... to do everything that can give and preserve a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." This is how he outlined his position on the reintegration of the southern states: leniency and reconciliation, rather than punishment and retribution, should determine the post-war phase.

Meanwhile, Grant's attack on Richmond and Sherman's even more notorious "throw to the sea", which left behind traces of devastation, demoralized the Confederacy and marked the beginning of its defeat. At first, Lincoln was skeptical of Sherman's plans because, like Grant, he did not understand the "scorched earth" strategic principle that gave the war its "total" character in the final phase. On April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered his army in Virginia, and a few weeks later the remnants of the Southern troops stopped fighting.